sta630 grand quiz
Team VUITEXPERT
GRAND QUIZ STA630
2nd sem
•
163.all of the following options are the part of research proposal, EXCEPT :discussion
164. The education system of pakistan is not oriented to the human resource need of country is an
example of which type of hypothesis none of given option
165. Another name of dimensions is:
166.which of following is research strategy for locating literature review for research project
167. A theory is a coherent set of ________used as principles of the explanation of apparent
relationship of certain observed phenomena.
168. The goal of ethics in research is to ensure no one is harmed adverse consequences from
research activities
169.a study assessing whether men or women are more likely to b diagnosed with depression is an
example of
170.integrating review helps to. Summarizes what is known at a point in time
171. The independent variable is the variable manipulated in order to observe its effect
172. Logical relationship among the factors identified in the literature review is called
173. Moderating variables can either be categorical and continus
174.any variable that has limited number of distinct values and which cannot be divided into
fractions known as :discontinuous variables
174. Which of a following is a research method for descriptive and casual research all of given?
175. Literature review provides a solid foundation for developing theoretical framework
176. Linking the language of theory with the language of empirical measure is done in
operationalization
177 the introduction section of research proposal contains information about all of the following
except research design
178. Procter & gambles has launched a new product following diversification strategy, they did not
have previous similar information about problem faced in the marked. The company will conduct
which type of research.
179. A key objective of search for literature is that the researcher.
180. Which of the following option provide an logical relationship between VARIABLES theoretical
framework
181. A researcher is in questionnaire asked nature of business respondents are working in, whether
trading, manufacturing or servicing. Nature of business is likely to be measured on which type of
following scales
182 the research design section of research proposal contains information about all of the following
except results and discussion
183. ________hypothesis states no relationship between two variables null
184. Relational hypothesis can be all of the given
185. An elementary or basic form of research, in which little is known about the situation and
previous theories or ideas do not apply is known as descriptive study
186. The ______is only useful if the concepts, ideas, questions etc. To be investigated are both
testable and falsifiable experimental method (tuka)
187. In which of the given research designs, same people or group are observed across various time
periods penel study
188. All of the following options are sources of literature review, EXCEPT sample
189. The essential part in ethics and ethical standards is
• For 3×3 Latin Square design, the standard Latin squares can be
• An experimental design is to be more efficient than another if it attains the same precision
with
• If there are k treatments with r blocks in Randomized completed Block design ,the degrees
of freedom for error will be
• A variable other than predictor variable that could have an influence on the outcome
variable is called extraneous variable.
• Which of the following are considered essential steps of the research process All of given.
• In theoretical review, the author compares several theories and concepts focused on the
same topic on the basis of
• The first step in development of theoretical framework is to make inventory of variables.
• Which of the following variables is undesirable because it adds error to an experiment?
Extraneous variable
• How different theories address an issue comes under theoretical review.
• Reviewers have more confidence about the successful completion of a project if the
proposal is All of given
• The best method to narrow down a topic is to be conduct literature review.
• It is important to plan and structure the literature review before writing the literature
review.
• Conceptual framework helps to postulate which of the following options hypothesis.
• Concepts represents various degree of Abstraction.
• One of the preoccupations of quantitative researchers is with generalization, which is a sign
of external validity.
• Which of the following provides a solid foundation for the theoretical framework literature
review.
• Which of the following option is an example of concept All
• What research is a systematic Enquiry.
• The elaboration of the variables in the theoretical framework addresses which type of
questions? Both a and b
• ..................... variable takes infinite number of values. Continuous variable .
• Moderating variables can either be categorical and continuous.
• “A system of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions and propositions that are
advanced to explain and predict phenomena” is known as theory .
• A one tailed hypothesis predicts the direction of the effect .
• Job satisfaction, job performance, decision making , turnover and personal characteristics.
All these variables are used to develop which of the following option ? Theoretical
framework.
• Two means are declared to come from populations with significantly different means , when
the absolute value of their difference is
• The major concern of individuals engaged in an action research is diagnosis a problem.
• Proctor & Gamble has launched a new product following diversification strategy, they did
not have previous similar information about problems faced in the marked. The company
will conduct which type of research?
• To explain , predict and control phenomena are the goals of scientific method .
• The verifiable characteristics of scientific research deals with all of the following except
result's interpretation
• The verifiable characteristics of scientific research deals with all of given
• The research design section of a research proposal contains information about all of the
following except
• Which of the following is not a part of a measurement process ?
• 1- Why do you need to review the existing literature? (To find out what is already known
about our area of interest)
• 2- "The higher the motivation the higher the efficiency" is an example of _____ hypothesis.
(Explanatory Hypothesis)
• 3- A literature review that summarizes what is known at a point in time is known as:
(Integrative review)
• 4- What should be done if the respondants are intentionally or accidentally deceived? (They
should be debriefed once the research is complete)
• 5- After you locate a source, you should write down all details of the reference, EXCEPT
(price)
• 6- In theoretical review, the auther compares several theories and concepts focused on the
same topic on the basis of: (All of the above)
• 7- Null hypothesis states: (Absence of relationship)
• 8- All of the given options are helpful to develop conceptual definition, EXCEPT (Make
elements from dimensions)
• 9- Which of the following is observe at the empirical level: (Reality)
• 10- Operationally during a concept involves a series of: (Steps)
• 11- One tailed hypothesis predicts: (The direction of the effect)
• 12- The scientific researcher operates at two levels, one is at the abstract level of concepts
and other one is the _______ of variables. (Empirical Level)
• 13- Descriptive and explanatory research are the classifications of research on the basis of:
(purpose of the research)
• 14- Which of the following must be considered while conducting a literature review for a
researcher: (All of the above)
• 15- Skepticism is the norm of: (Science)
• 16- Debriefing involves: (All of the given options)
• 17- There is no relationship between job satisfaction and the employees turnover rate is an
example of which of the following hypothesis: (Null hypothesis)
• 18- ______ explains the logical relationship among the concepts. (Propositions)
• 19- Identify the options that can be a disadvantage of cross-sectional research. (It cannot
capture the Change process)
• 20- Which of the following is a type of Applied Research: (Impact Assessment
Research)
• 21- Which of the following is a research method for descriptive and casual research? (All
of the given options)
• 22- Which of the following is also referred to as working definitions? (Operational
definition)
• 23- The goal of ethics in research is to ensure (No one is harmed adverse consequences
from research activities)
• 24- Concepts, created and developed for conducting any research study, are: (None of
the given options)
• 25- A good review of the literature increases a reader's confidence in the researcher's:
(All of the above)
• 26- If the researcher's use findings to generate theories and models to understand human
behavior: (Meso level)
• 27- Which of the following activities is not included in debriefing: (Obtaining informed
consent)
• 28- Linking the language of the theory with the language of empirical measures is done in:
(Operationalization)
• 29- A literature review requires a/an: (All of the given options)
• 30- ______ is not a form of measurement validity. (Conductive validity)
• 31- Which of the following is not a part of measurement process. (Define the concept
theoretically)
• 32- A research proposal is a document that presents a _____ to the reviewers for evaluation.
(Plan for a project)
• All of the following are considered the steps of the research except. Derivative analysis
• If the researcher converts the abstract concept into tangible one is called..
Operationalization
• Theories are supposed to be_______ and they could be applicable to different situations.
Genetic
• In theoretical review, author compares several theories and concepts focused on the same
topic on the basis of. All
• All of the following options describe the research except. A casual inquiry to seek required
information
• ALL of the following are parts of applied research except. Formulative research
• High productivity is positively associated with job commitment. The given hypothesis is____.
Co-relational hypothesis
• Which of the following is at the highest level of abstraction. Theory
• Problem statement is a ____ statement of the question or issue that is to be investigated
with the goal of finding an answer or solution. All
• The research process consists of different steps ranging from. 5 to 11 ( not sure)
• Which of the following tasks is not accomplished by theoretical framework. Relates the
previous studies
• All of these are characteristics of scientific methods of research except. Intuitive
• Theoretical framework provides the logical base for developing. Hypothesis
• Research Methods are applicable in all of the following domains except. Imaginary world
• Identify the option that explains the idea that knowledge is verifiable by experience or
observation. Empiricism
• Which of the following is not a feature of theoretical framework. Presenting findings
• The reviewed literature must be. Relevant to the research project
• Concepts represent various degree of .Abstraction
• Which of the following best describes the ethics. A process of reasoning that guides moral
choices
• The validity of a measure refers to the. Consistency of measurement
• The following journal article would be an example of ___ research. The benefits of
fluorescent lighting on production in a factory setting. Applied
• Which of the following is considered as data collection technique. Sample
• In the statement, an examination of the effects of discretionary behavior on employee
performance. Dependent variable
• Descriptive hypothesis contains. One variable only
• Hypothesis refers to. A tentative statement about the relationship
• What research is. A systematic inquiry
• The randomization in a completely randomized design is restricted in no restriction
• •
The effect of a third variable on both response and independent variable is known as
blocking effect
• •
If there are 7 treatments with 6 blocks in a randomized complete block design than the
degrees of freedom for treatments
• •
Randomization, Replication and local control are the basic types of systematic error.
• •
An experimental design where the treatments are appear once and only one in each
direction is randomized complete block design
• •
The distribution involved in the formula of LSD-test is chi square
• •
The experimental design where the treatments are appear once and only once in each
direction is
• •
An experimental design were the experimental units are randomly assigned to the
treatments is known as completely randomized design
• •
In 5×5 latin square design if the sum of squares for rows and columns is 16 and 12
respectively then the value of mean square column is
•
• If the square of grand total is 250 and k=5 then the value of correction factor latin square
design with one missing observation will bi
• •
If the mean square of columns is 25 with the corresponding degrees of freedom 4 and the
mean square error is 10 then the value of F will the
• •
In a randomized complete block design if a sum of squares for blocks is 9 with its
corresponding degrees of freedom 3 : 27
• •
If there are 4 rows 4 columns and 4 treatments formed a Latin square design the total
degrees of freedom will bi
• •
If the LSD test is 2.09 and difference between the means of treatment -1 and treatment-2 is
1.54 then the decision will be
• •
When the treatments are applied to the experimental units by some systematic pattern or
by the choice of the experimenter such design is called systematic design.
• •
A test used in Randomized complete block design is Anova
• •
Efficiency of latin square can bi compared with both CRD and RCBD
• •
In a randomized complete block design if the degrees of freedom for treatments 3 for blocks
is 4
• •
In a randomized complete block design if a sum of squares for blocks (SSB) is 9 with its
corresponding degrees of freedom 3, the value of mean square block MSB
• •
Assume that each treatment "k" Is replicated three times with in each block so that each
block contains the plots k/3
• •
In a randomized complete block design if a sum of squares for blocks SSB is 9 with its
• •
Two means are declared to come from populations with significantly different means
• •
The missing observations in the data impact on the error degrees of freedom as
• •
In a Latin square design the randomization is restricted is 2 directions
• •
The formula to find out the missing observation in Randomized complete block design
• •
For a 5×5 latin square design there will be observations 25
• concrete to abstract is called: ladder of abstraction
• All of the following options are the characteristics of good hypothesis, EXCEPT:
• A logical relationship between two or more variables, expressed in the form of a testable
statement is known as: hypothesis
• Which of the following refers to the abstract concept? Racism
• If the researcher converts the abstract concept into a tangible one is called:
operationalization
• Age, height, and number of siblings are an example of which of the following options:
continuous variables
• In _________ we collect same type of information from different respondents in different
times. Time series research
• ________ is not a form of measurement validity. Face validity
• All of these are characteristics of scientific method of research EXCEPT: intuitive
• What is Cross-selection research? The collection of data from more than one case at one
moment in time
• The order in which participants complete a task is _______ level of measurement? interval
• Identify the option that explains a logical relationship among the concept. Proposition
• All of the following options, a researcher should keep in mind while planning for literature
search, EXCEPT:
• Relational hypothesis can be: all of the given option
• Concepts, create and developed for conducting any research study, are: relevant to the
methodological framework
• The “verifiable” characteristic of scientific research deals with : the results replication
• An elementary or basic form of research, in which little is known about the situation and
previous theories or ideas do not apply, is known as:
• The literature review that the researcher writes becomes the: theoretical framework of the
research project
• __________ refers to an idea that concepts experienced are measurable.
• Which of the following best describe the concept of operationalizing? Operationalizing is
the same as making concept valid
• Which of the following is NOT included in the introduction section of a research proposal?
Sampling technique
• Identify the option that can be a disadvantage of cross-sectional research.
• Which of the following is/are the basic features of a theoretical framework? All of above
• The order in which participants complete a task is ______ level of measurement? interval
• Which of the following variable may have some effects upon a dependent variable but yet is
not an independent variable?
• “Higher level of job satisfaction, higher will be the employee performance” which type of
relationship the movement of variables determines? Positive relationship
• A variable with no possible values is called:
• Set parameters to conduct literature review includes : all
• Which of the following is NOT an unethical issue? Seek approval for research
• Which of the following is also referred to as working definition? Operational definition
• 1.Which of the following next step is performed by the researcher after developing the
inventory of the relevant variable? Identify the relationships between the variables
• 2. Adoption of codes of behavior by a group of people is called: Societal norms
• 3.Which of the following best describes the Ethics: A process of reasoning that guides moral
choices
• 4. How different theories address an issue comes under: Theoretical review
• 5. A concept is a generalized idea about: All of the given options
• 6. The validity of a measure refers to the: Consistency of the measurement
• 7. Which of the following is not an example of deception? To observe code of ethics
• 8. The essential part in ethics and ethical standards is: No one is being harmed by research
activities
• 9. Data collection techniques include all expect: Data analysis
• 10. In the statement “high motivation results in high efficiency” motivation is the:
Dependent variable
• 11. which of following statement is true? Theory and Research are interrelated
• 12. Which of the following is Not included in research proposal? Bibliography
• 13. Which of the following is a research method for descriptive and causal research? All the
given options
• 14. Which of the following is considered as one of the main parties in a research: The
researcher
• 15. All of the given options are helpful to develop conceptual definition, EXCEPT: Make
elements from dimensions
• 16. What does a good literature review look like? All of the given options
• 17. Skepticism is the norm of: Science
• 18. “The extensive use of chocolate causes pimples” the given hypothesis is a: Co-relational
hypothesis
• 19. ----- is not a form of measurement validity: Face Validity
• 20. Which of the following provides a solid foundation for the theoretical framework?
Survey
• 21. Which of the following is at the highest level of abstraction? Theory
• 22. All of the following are the basic research methods of data collection expect: Description
analysis
• 23. ---------Validity indicates that items that are intended to be measured look like they
measure the concept: Face validity
• 24. A_____ scale only assigns numbers to objects to classify the objects according to the
characteristic of interest: interval
• 25. A variable that appears between independent and dependent variable and shows the
link or mechanism between them is known as: Intervening variable
• 26. The total number of types of the literature review are: 6
• 27. Another name of conceptual definition is: Theoretical definition
• 28. Why do you need to review the existing literature? To find out what is already known
about our area of interest
• 29. Relational Hypothesis can be: Positive or negative
• 30. A theory is a coherent set of____ used as principles of explanations of the apparent
relationship of certain observed phenomena: Propositions
• 61. Hypothesis refers to-------- a tentative statement about the relationship’s
• 62. ------is only useful if the concepts, ideas and questions etc.to be investigated are both
testable and. Dependent variable
• 63. Specially a theoretical framework serves the purpose of. All of the given option
• 64. -----is the example of concrete concept. Age
• 65. which of the following is not a sources of literature review? Experiment
• 66. The purpose of -----is to convince reviewers that the researcher is capable of conducting
the purposed search project successfully. Research proposal
• 67. which of the following types of processes. Research falls in? A Process to discover the
truth
• 68. The measure which help the researcher to capture the intensity of a variable is
called.Index
• 69. What course of action should be adopted by the researcher in order to safeguard the
night of respondent. Researcher should obtain informed consent from the respondent
• 70. The primary source of communication means researcher among means is Scholarly
journals
• 71. Any variable that has a limited number of distinct values and which cannot be divided
into fraction is known as Discontinuous variable
• 72. -------validity indicates that items that are intended to be measured look like they
measure the concept Face validity
• 73. what is true about focus group discussions 6-12pereson with a moderator for 1-2 hours
• 73. companies have the right to dissociate themselves from sponsorship of a researcher
project this type of confidentiality is called Sponsorship nondisclosure
• 74. The arrangement of steps involved in operational definition of a concept is Concept,
statements ,elements,dimension
• 75. what does a good literature review look like? All of the given option
• 76. which one of the following is not a part of research design ? objective of the study
• 77. a researcher can easily see and comprehend the theorized relationship through
schematic diagram
• 78. the researcher protects the confidentiality in following ways. Except disclosure of data
subsets
• 79. A researcher in his questionnaire asked nature of business of respondent are working in
weather trading nature of business is likely to be measured on which type of following scales
normal scale
• 80. The introduction section of research proposal of contains information about all of the
following except design of the study
• 81. which one of the following is not a technique to narrow down the board problem area.
Decide about the sample
• 82. the ----is only useful if the concepts ifdeas question etcto be investigated are both
testable and folsifiabi. Experimental method
• 83. which according to empiricism which of the following is the ultimate sources of all over
concepts nd knowledge. Reception
• 83. a good review off the litracture increases a reader confidents in the researcher. All of
the above
• 84. in conducting literature review the researcher. Finds and reeds relevant literature the
writes a review of the literature
• 85. an operational definition is a definition of a concept in terms of specific empirical
measures
• 86. a study conducted by pepsi to find out impact the salery on employes tutor is situates
at what level. Micro level
• 87. which of the following best describe the concept of operationalizing. Operationalizing
concepts involve making concepts measureable
• 88. the reviewed literature made be. Relevant to the research project
• The application of the scientific method to the study of business problems is called
• Business research
• An interval scale contains ----------------
• A fixed amount of difference between catagories
• All of the following are sources of literature review EXCEPT
• Story books
• --------------- concepts like people’s subjective feelings, attitudes, ideology, deviance, and
perceptions are difficult to measure in research
• Intangible
• Which of the following is likely to reduce the validity of a test?
• All of the given options
• There are ------------- basic research methods for descriptive and casual research
• 6
• Which of the following can be the best possible reason for using a scientific method to make
a decision?
• It provides systematic inquiry into the matter
• The review literature must be:
• Relevant to the research project
• “There is no relationship between advertising and sales of product A” The given hypothesis
in a (an):
• Null hypothesis
• An elementary or basic form of research in which little is known about the situation and
previous theories or ideas do not apply , is known as:
• Exploratory study
• There are ------------- basic research methods for descriptive and causal research
• 6
• One of the major hallmarks of scientific research is:
• Objectivity
• “The extensive use of chocolate causes pimples” The given hypothesis is a (an):
• Co-relational hypothesis
• Which of the following is NOT a part of research design?
• Tool of data collection
• In ----------------- definition, a concept is explained in terms of other concepts.
• Working
• A theory is a coherent set of -------------- used as principles of explanations of the apparent
relationship of certain observed phenomena.
• Propositions
• Hypothesis is also called:
• Testable propositions
• Operationalization is the method of associating the conceptual definition to a particular set
of --------------
• Measurement techniques
• The research process consists of different steps ranging from:
• 5 to 11
• If one variable depends upon another variable is termed as :
• Dependent
• Null hypothesis states:
• Absence of relationship
• What is the first step in the research process?
• Define broad problem area
• A moderator variable is one that:
• Modifies the original relationship
• A researcher can organize a computerized search by
• Keyword
• Which of the following are considered essential steps of the research process
• All of the above
• Which of the following is a nominal variable?
• Shoe size
• Before a researcher specified the relationship among variables, he must have a (an):
• Inventory of propositions
• Conceptual definition of the variable is also known as ------------
• Theoretical definition
• In the statement “high motivation results in high efficiency” motivation in the :
• Dependent variable
• The independent variable is:
• The variable manipulated in order to observe its effects
• What is a hypothesis? A prediction of a relationship between certain variables
• The following journal article would be an example --------------research;”the benefits of
florescent lighting on production in a factory setting “ Applied
• Hypothesis refers to----? A tentative statement about the relationship
• In the finding of research conducted by Samsung in Pakistan holds true in similar industry,
the concept under which of the following option? Statistical concept
• Researcher is supposed to develop a ------------after stating the specific problem to be
studied in an experiment: Conclusion
• Which of the following is not an assumption of science? Events happen of preceding causes
• A researcher can be develop a theoretical framework on the basis of------------: More than
one theory
• The unemployment among arts students is high is an example of which type of hypothesis?
descriptive
• Preliminary data collection may be considered as part of---------------.exploratory research.
• Which of the following is a process of taking a construct and refining it by giving it a
conceptual or theoretical definition? Conceptualization
• Which of the following is not a purpose of literature review? help you in developing
theoretical framework
• A theory is a coherent set of ------used a principle of explanation of apparent relationship of
certain observed phenomena? propositions
• A variable with two possible values is called ------?discontinuous
• A key objective of the search for literature that the researcher :
• All of these are characteristics of scientific methods of research, Except; Intuitive
• A researcher should practices which of the following guideline while conducting a research
projects? all
• Conceptual definition the variable is also known as-----------:theoretical definition
• Which of the following option is not a part of research methodology: Objective of the study
• A clear, precise, and succinct statement of question or issue that is to be investigated with
the goal of fining an answer or solution is called problem definition/problem statement
• The research design section of a research proposal contains information about all the
following except? Result and discussion
• Identify the option that explain the logical relationship among the concepts: ) Propositions
• A framework that plans the action for research project is known as: Research design
• Every research project should begins with: A statement of the research
• An elementary or basic form of research in which little is known about the situation and
previous theory or ideas do not apply , is known as: Exploratory Study
• Which of the following is/are the objectives of the literature review: All of the above
• Stipulation of logical relationship between any two variables is means: formulation of the
proportion
• Image and concept used to illustrate how language and reasoning involve from concerto
abstract is called:
• After you locate a resource , you should write down all details of the reference, expect :
price
• Variable that is manipulated by the researchers is an experiment is called-------?independent
• What should be done if the respondents are intentionally or accidently deceived? They
should be debriefed once the research is complete.
• The process of reasoning from one or more statements to reach a logical conclusion is
called:
• •
The process of finding a solution to a problem after a thorough study and analysis is called
:after you locate a source you, should write down all details of the reference, except;
research
• A research participant might get suffered from which of the following forms of harm, during
the research study? All
• All of the following option are the characteristics of good hypothesis, except: specific
• Which of the following best describes the ethics. A process of reasoning that guides moral
choices.
• Which of the following is not a function of clearly identified research questions. They make
the scope of your research as side as possible.
• What is a cross sectional research. The collection of data from more than one case at
moment in time.
• Any variable that has a limited number of distinct values and which cannot be divided into
fractions is known as. Discontinuous variable
• While conducting a literature review the researcher engages in: an evolution of the
literature
• Which of the following is not a source of literature review. Experiment
• What is the basis of the scientific method. We formulate a research problem test the
hypothesis in carefully control condition that challenge the hypothesis.
• What is true about focus Group discussion. 6-12 person with a moderator for 1-2 hours
• Researcher in his questionnaire asked nature of business respondents are working in;
weather trading, manufacturing are servicing. Nature of business is likely to be made on
which type of following scales. Nominal scale
• Communication is more effective when it is Tailored to. Specific audience
• Scientific research focuses on which of the following. Objectively
• “Higher the level of job satisfaction, hire will be the employees’ performance.” Which type
of relationship the moment of variable determines? Positive relationship
• Problem statement is a________ statement of the question are issued at is to be
investigated with the goal of finding in answer our solution. All of the above
• The following general article would be an example of________ research; “the benefits of
florescent lighting on production in a factory.”. applied
• Researcher is post to develop a________after stating the specific problem to be studies in
an experiment;. Hypothesis
• In which of the given research designs, some people are group observed across various time
periods. Panel study
• The first step in development of theoretical framework is. To make an inventory of
variables
• Which of the following in research strategy for locating literature review for a research
project. All of the given option
• Our research conducting study to find out the reasons why students are not cooperating
with teachers is an example of. Exploratory study
• The “Verifiable” characteristic of scientific research deals with all of the following except.
The results interpretation
• The “ Verifiable” characteristics of scientific research deals with. All of the given options.
• Measurement of reliability refers to the. Accuracy of the scores.
• A concept is a generalized idea about____. All of the given options.
• The study of research methods provides you with the knowledge and skills you need. All of
the given options.
• Which of the following is/are the common sources of literature review. All of the given
options.
• theoretical review helps to. Compare how different theories address an issue
• To explain, predict, and control phenomena are the goals of:. The scientific method
• Identify the option that explain the scientific research operate at the abstract level. Theory
• Null hypothesis states. Absence of relationship
• Relational hypothesis can be. Casual aur simply correlational.
| World-Class Education at Your Doorstep |
| Virtual University of Pakistan |
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 1 |
| Lesson 1 INTRODUCTION, DEFINITION & VALUE OF RESEARCH |
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 2 |
| 4. Evaluating the course of action. |
| Lesson 2 SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF RESEARCH & ITS SPECIAL FEATURES |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 3
be referred to as scientific knowledge. In this way science refers to both a system for producing knowledge
and the knowledge produced from that system. Since the subject matters of the researchers differ, therefore,
we have the diversification of different sciences: broadly natural or physical sciences and human sciences.
Important Characteristics of Scientific Method
1. Empirical
Scientific method is concerned with the realities that are observable through “sensory experiences.” It
generates knowledge which is verifiable by experience or observation. Some of the realities could be directly
observed, like the number of students present in the class and how many of them are male and how many
female. The same students have attitudes, values, motivations, aspirations, and commitments. These are
also realities which cannot be observed directly, but the researchers have designed ways to observe these
indirectly. Any reality that cannot be put to “sensory experience” directly or indirectly (existence of heaven,
the Day of Judgment, life hereafter, God‟s rewards for good deeds) does not fall within the domain of scientific
method.
2. Verifiable
Observations made through scientific method are to be verified again by using the senses to confirm or refute
the previous findings. Such confirmations may have to be made by the same researcher or others. We will
place more faith and credence in those findings and conclusions if similar findings emerge on the basis of data
collected by other researchers using the same methods. To the extent that it does happen (i.e. the results are
replicated or repeated) we will gain confidence in the scientific nature of our research. Replicability, in this
way, is an important characteristic of scientific method. Hence revelations and intuitions are out of the domain
of scientific method.
3. Cumulative
Prior to the start of any study the researchers try to scan through the literature and see that their study is not
a repetition in ignorance. Instead of reinventing the wheel the researchers take stock of the existing body of
knowledge and try to build on it. Also the researchers do not leave their research findings into scattered bits
and pieces. Facts and figures are to be provided with language and thereby inferences drawn. The results
are to be organized and systematized. Nevertheless, we don‟t want to leave our studies as stand alone. A
linkage between the present and the previous body of knowledge has to be established, and that is how the
knowledge accumulates. Every new crop of babies does not have to start from a scratch; the existing body of
knowledge provides a huge foundation on which the researchers build on and hence the knowledge keeps on
growing.
4. Deterministic
Science is based on the assumption that all events have antecedent causes that are subject to identification
and logical understanding. For the scientist, nothing “just happens” – it happens for a reason. The scientific
researchers try to explain the emerging phenomenon by identifying its causes. Of the identified causes which
ones can be the most important? For example, in the 2006 BA/BS examination of the Punjab University 67
percent of the students failed. What could be the determinants of such a mass failure of students? The
researcher may try to explain this phenomenon and come up with variety of reasons which may pertain to
students, teachers, administration, curriculum, books, examination system, and so on. Looking into such a
large number of reasons may be highly cumbersome model for problem solution. It might be appropriate to
tell, of all these factors which one is the most important, the second most important, the third most important,
which two in combination are the most important. The researcher tries to narrow down the number of reasons
in such a way that some action could be taken. Therefore, the achievement of a meaningful, rather than an
elaborate and cumbersome, model for problem solution becomes a critical issue in research. That is parsimony
which implies the explanation with the minimum number of variables that are responsible for an undesirable
situation.
5. Ethical and Ideological Neutrality
The conclusions drawn through interpretation of the results of data analysis should be objective; that is, they
should be based on the facts of the findings derived from actual data, and not on our own subjective or
emotional values. For instance, if we had a hypothesis that stated that greater participation in decision making
will increase organizational commitment, and this was not supported by the results, it makes no sense if the
researcher continues to argue that increased opportunities for employee participation would still help. Such
an argument would be based, not on the factual, data based research findings, but on the subjective opinion
of the researcher. If this was the conviction of the researcher all along, then there was no need to do the
research in the first place.
Researchers are human beings, having individual ideologies, religious affiliations, cultural differences which
can influence the research findings. Any interference of their personal likings and dis-likings in their research
can contaminate the purity of the data, which ultimately can affect the predictions made by the researcher.
Therefore, one of the important characteristics of scientific method is to follow the principle of objectivity,
uphold neutrality, and present the results in an unbiased manner.
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 4 |
| 6. Statistical Generalization |
| Lesson 3 CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 5
The four dimensions reinforce each other; that is, a purpose tends to go with certain techniques and particular
uses. Few studies are pure types, but the dimensions simplify the complexity of conducting research.
1. Purpose of Doing Research
If we ask someone why he or she is conducting a study, we might get a range of responses: “My boss told me
to do”; “It was a class assignment”; “I was curious.” There are so many reasons to do research as there are
researches. Yet the purposes of research may be organized into three groups based on what the researcher
is trying to accomplish – explore a new topic, describe a social phenomenon, or explain why something occurs.
Studies may have multiple purposes (e.g. both to explore and to describe) but one purpose is usually
dominates.
a. Exploratory/Formulative Research
You may be exploring a new topic or issue in order to learn about it. If the issue was new or the researcher
has written little on it, you began at the beginning. This is called exploratory research. The researcher‟s goal
is to formulate more precise questions that future research can answer. Exploratory research may be the first
stage in a sequence of studies. A researcher may need to know enough to design and execute a second,
more systematic and extensive study.
Initial research conducted to clarify the nature of the problem. When a researcher has a limited amount
of experience with or knowledge about a research issue, exploratory research is useful preliminary step that
helps ensure that a more rigorous, more conclusive future study will not begin with an inadequate
understanding of the nature of the management problem. The findings discovered through exploratory
research would the researchers to emphasize learning more about the particulars of the findings in subsequent
conclusive studies.
Exploratory research rarely yields definitive answers. It addresses the “what” question: “what is this social
activity really about?” It is difficult to conduct because there are few guidelines to follow.
Specifically there could be a number of goals of exploratory research.
Goals of Exploratory Research:
1. Become familiar with the basic facts, setting, and concerns;
2. Develop well grounded picture of the situation;
3. Develop tentative theories, generate new ideas, conjectures, or hypotheses;
4. Determine the feasibility of conducting the study;
5. Formulate questions and refine issues for more systematic inquiry; and
6. Develop techniques and a sense of direction for future research.
For exploratory research, the researcher may use different sources for getting information like:
1. Experience surveys,
2. Secondary data analysis,
3. Case studies
4. Pilot studies.
As part of the experience survey the researcher tries to contact individuals who are knowledgeable about a
particular research problem. This constitutes an informal experience survey.
Another economical and quick source of background information is secondary data analysis. It is preliminary
review of data collected for another purpose to clarify issues in the early stages of a research effort.
The purpose of case study is to obtain information from one or a few situations that are similar to the
researcher‟s problem situation. A researcher interested in doing a nationwide survey among union workers,
may first look at a few local unions to identify the nature of any problems or topics that should be investigated.
A pilot study implies that some aspect of the research is done on a small scale. For this purpose focus group
discussions could be carried out.
b. Descriptive Research:
Descriptive research presents a picture of the specific details of a situation, social setting, or relationship. The
major purpose of descriptive research, as the term implies, is to describe characteristics of a population or
phenomenon. Descriptive research seeks to determine the answers to who, what, when, where, and how
questions. Labor Force Surveys, Population Census, and Educational Census are examples of such research.
Descriptive study offers to the researcher a profile or description of relevant aspects of the phenomena of
interest. Look at the class in research methods and try to give its profile – the characteristics of the students.
When we start to look at the relationship of the variables, then it may help in diagnosis analysis.
Goals of Descriptive Research:
1. Describe the situation in terms of its characteristics i.e. provide an accurate profile of a group;
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 6
2. Give a verbal or numerical picture (%) of the situation;
3. Present background information;
4. Create a set of categories or classify the information;
5. Clarify sequence, set of stages; and
6. Focus on „who,‟ „what,‟ „when,‟ „where,‟ and „how‟ but not why?
A great deal of social research is descriptive. Descriptive researchers use most data –gathering techniques
– surveys, field research, and content analysis.
c. Explanatory Research:
When we encounter an issue that is already known and have a description of it, we might begin to wonder
why things are the way they are. The desire to know “why,” to explain, is the purpose of explanatory research.
It builds on exploratory and descriptive research and goes on to identify the reasons for something that occurs.
Explanatory research looks for causes and reasons. For example, a descriptive research may discover that
10 percent of the parents abuse their children, whereas the explanatory researcher is more interested in
learning why parents abuse their children.
Goals of Explanatory Research:
1. Explain things not just reporting. Why? Elaborate and enrich a theory‟s explanation.
2. Determine which of several explanations is best.
3. Determine the accuracy of the theory; test a theory‟s predictions or principle.
4. Advance knowledge about underlying process.
5. Build and elaborate a theory; elaborate and enrich a theory‟s predictions or principle.
6. Extend a theory or principle to new areas, new issues, new topics:
7. Provide evidence to support or refute an explanation or prediction.
8. Test a theory‟s predictions or principles
2. The Uses of Research
Some researchers focus on using research to advance general knowledge, whereas others use it to solve
specific problems. Those who seek an understanding of the fundamental nature of social reality are engaged
in basic research (also called academic research or pure research or fundamental research). Applied
researchers, by contrast, primarily want to apply and tailor knowledge to address a specific practical issue.
They want to answer a policy question or solve a pressing social and economic problem.
a. Basic Research
Basic research advances fundamental knowledge about the human world. It focuses on refuting or supporting
theories that explain how this world operates, what makes things happen, why social relations are a certain
way, and why society changes. Basic research is the source of most new scientific ideas and ways of thinking
about the world. It can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory; however, explanatory research is the most
common.
Basic research generates new ideas, principles and theories, which may not be immediately utilized; though
are the foundations of modern progress and development in different fields. Today‟s computers could not
exist without the pure research in mathematics conducted over a century ago, for which there was no known
practical application at that time.
Police officers trying to prevent delinquency or counselors of youthful offenders may see little relevance to
basic research on the question, “Why does deviant behavior occur?” Basic research rarely helps practitioners
directly with their everyday concerns. Nevertheless, it stimulates new ways of thinking about deviance that
have the potential to revolutionize and dramatically improve how practitioners deal with a problem.
A new idea or fundamental knowledge is not generated only by basic research. Applied research, too, can
build new knowledge. Nonetheless, basic research is essential for nourishing the expansion of knowledge.
Researchers at the center of the scientific community conduct most of the basic research.
b. Applied Research
Applied researchers try to solve specific policy problems or help practitioners accomplish tasks. Theory is less
central to them than seeking a solution on a specific problem for a limited setting. Applied research is
frequently a descriptive research, and its main strength is its immediate practical use.
Applied research is conducted when decision must be made about a specific real-life problem. Applied
research encompasses those studies undertaken to answer questions about specific problems or to make
decisions about a particular course of action or policy. For example, an organization contemplating a
paperless office and a networking system for the company‟s personal computers may conduct research to
learn the amount of time its employees spend at personal computers in an average week.
c. Basic and Applied Research Compared
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 7
The procedures and techniques utilized by basic and applied researchers do not differ substantially. Both
employ the scientific method to answer the questions at hand.
The scientific community is the primary consumer of basic research. The consumers of applied research
findings are practitioners such as teachers, counselors, and caseworkers, or decision makers such as
managers, committees, and officials. Often, someone other than the researcher who conducted the study
uses the results of applied research. This means that applied researchers have an obligation to translate
findings from scientific technical language into the language of decision makers or practitioners.
The results of applied research are less likely to enter the public domain in publications. Results may be
available only to a small number of decision makers or practitioners, who decide whether or how to put the
research results into practice and who may or may not use the results.
Applied and basic researchers adopt different orientations toward research methodology. Basic researchers
emphasize high standards and try to conduct near-perfect research. Applied researchers make more tradeoffs. They may compromise scientific rigor to get quick, usable results. Compromise is no excuse for sloppy
research, however. Applied researchers squeeze research into the constraints of an applied setting and
balance rigor against practical needs. Such balancing requires an in-depth knowledge of research and an
awareness of the consequences of compromising standards.
d. Types of Applied Research
Practitioners use several types of applied research. Some of the major ones are:
Action research: The applied research that treats knowledge as a form of power and abolishes the line
between research and social action. Those who are being studied participate in the research process;
research incorporates ordinary or popular knowledge; research focuses on power with a goal of
empowerment; research seeks to raise consciousness or increase awareness; and research is tied directly to
political action. The researchers try to advance a cause or improve conditions by expanding public awareness.
They are explicitly political, not value neutral. Because the goal is to improve the conditions of research
participants, formal reports, articles, or books become secondary. Action researchers assume that knowledge
develops from experience, particularly the experience of social-political action. They also assume that ordinary
people can become aware of conditions and learn to take actions that can bring about improvement.
Impact Assessment Research: Its purpose is to estimate the likely consequences of a planned change.
Such an assessment is used for planning and making choices among alternative policies – to make an impact
assessment of Basha Dam on the environment; to determine changes in housing if a major new highway is
built.
Evaluation Research: It addresses the question, “Did it work?” The process of establishing value judgment
based on evidence about the achievement of the goals of a program. Evaluation research measures the
effectiveness of a program, policy, or way of doing something. “Did the program work?” “Did it achieve its
objectives?” Evaluation researchers use several research techniques (survey, field research).
Practitioners involved with a policy or program may conduct evaluation research for their own information or
at the request of outside decision makers, who sometime place limits on researchers by setting boundaries
on what can be studied and determining the outcome of interest.
Two types of evaluation research are formative and summative. Formative evaluation is built-in monitoring or
continuous feedback on a program used for program management. Summative evaluation looks at final
program outcomes. Both are usually necessary.
The Time Dimension in Research:
Another dimension of research is the treatment of time. Some studies give us a snapshot of a single, fixed
time point and allow us to analyze it in detail. Other studies provide a moving picture that lets us follow events,
people, or sale of products over a period of time. In this way from the angle of time research could be divided
into two broad types:
Cross-Sectional Research: In cross-sectional research, researchers observe at one point in time. Crosssectional research is usually the simplest and least costly alternative. Its disadvantage is that it cannot capture
the change processes. Cross-sectional research can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory, but it is most
consistent with a descriptive approach to research.
Longitudinal Research: Researchers using longitudinal research examine features of people or other units
at more than one time. It is usually more complex and costly than crosssectional research but it is also more
powerful, especially when researchers seek answers to questions about change. There are three types of
longitudinal research: time series, panel, and cohort.
Time series research is longitudinal study in which the same type of information is collected on a group of
people or other units across multiple time periods. Researcher can observe stability or change in the features
of the units or can track conditions overtime. One could track the characteristics of students registering in the
course on Research Methods over a period of four years i.e. the characteristics (Total, age characteristics,
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 8 |
| gender distribution, subject distribution, and geographic distribution). Such an analysis could tell us the trends birth cohorts); all people hired at the same time, all people retire on one or two year time frame, and all people |
| Lesson 4 THEORY AND RESEARCH |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 9
Concepts
Theory development is essentially a process of describing phenomena at increasingly higher levels of
abstraction. A concept (or construct) is a generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences,
or processes that has been given a name. Such names are created or developed or constructed for the
identification of the phenomenon, be it physical or non-physical. All these may be considered as empirical
realities e.g. leadership, productivity, morale, motivation, inflation, happiness, banana.
Concepts are the building block of a theory. Concepts abstract reality. That is, concepts are expressed in
words, letters, signs, and symbols that refer to various events or objects. For example, the concept “asset” is
an abstract term that may, in the concrete world of reality, refer to a specific punch press machine. Concepts,
however, may vary in degree of abstraction and we can put them in a ladder of abstraction, indicating different
levels.
Moving up the ladder of abstraction, the basic concept becomes more abstract, wider in scope, and less
amenable to measurement. The scientific researcher operates at two levels: on the abstract level of concepts
(and propositions) and on the empirical level of variables (and hypotheses). At the empirical level we
“experience” reality – that is we observe the objects or events. In this example the reality has been given a
name i.e. banana. Moving up the ladder this reality falls in wider reality i.e. fruit, which in turn becomes part
of further wider reality called as vegetation.
Researchers are concerned with the observable world, or what we may call as “reality.” We try to construct
names to such empirical reality for its identification, which may refer to as concept at an abstract level.
Concepts are Abstractions of Reality
Abstract Level
Empirical Level OBSERVATION OF OBJECTS AND EVENTS (REALITY)
CONCEPTS
“ Theory”
A systematic and
general attempt to
explain something…
A suggested
explanation for
something…
―Why do people
commit crimes?‖
“ How does the
media affect us?‖
―Why do some people
believe in God?‖
―Why do
people get
married?‖
―Why do kids play truant
from school?‖
―How is our identity
shaped by culture?‖
A Ladder Of Abstraction
For Concepts
Reality
Banana
Fruit
Vegetation
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 10
Theorists translate their conceptualization of reality into abstract ideas. Thus theory deals with abstraction.
Things are not the essence of theory; ideas are. Concepts in isolation are not theories.
Only when we explain how concepts relate to other concepts we begin to construct theories.
Propositions
Concepts are the basic units of theory development. However, theories require an understanding of the
relationship among concepts. Thus, once reality is abstracted into concepts, the scientist is interested in the
relationship among various concepts. Propositions are statements concerned with the logical relationships
among concepts. A proposition explains the logical linkage among certain concepts by asserting a universal
connection between concepts.
Theory is an abstraction from observed reality. Concepts are at one level of abstraction. Investigating
propositions requires that we increase our level abstract thinking. When we think about theories, we are at the
highest level of abstraction because we are investigating the relationship between propositions. Theory is a
network of propositions.
Theory and Research
Basic to modern science is an intricate relation between theory and research. The popular understanding of
this relationship obscures more than it illuminates. Popular opinion generally conceives of these as direct
opposites: theory is confused with speculation, and thus theory remains speculation until it is proved. When
this proof is made, theory becomes fact. Facts are thought to be definite, certain, without question, and their
meaning to be self-evident.
When we look at what scientists actually do when engaged in research, it becomes clear (1) that theory and
fact are not diametrically opposed, but inextricably intertwined; (2) that theory is not speculation; and (3) that
scientists are very much concerned with both theory and fact (research).
Hence research produces facts and from facts we can generate theories. Theories are soft mental images
whereas research covers the empirical world of hard, settled, and observable things. In this way theory and
fact (research) contribute to each other.
Role of Theory
1. Theory as orientation.
A major function of a theoretical system is that it narrows the range of facts to be studied. Any phenomenon
or object may be studied in many different ways. A football, for example, can be investigated within an
economic framework, as we ascertain the patterns of demand and supply relating to this play object. It may
also be the object of chemical research, for it is made of organic chemicals. It has a mass and may be studied
as physical object undergoing different stresses and attaining certain velocities under various conditions. It
may also be seen as the center of many sociologically interesting activities; play, communication, group
organization, etc.
Each science and each specialization within a broader field abstracts from reality, keeping its attention upon
a few aspects of given phenomena rather than on all aspects. The broad orientation of each field then focuses
upon limited range of things while ignoring or making assumptions about others.
Theory as a conceptualization and classification.
Every science is organized by a structure of concepts, which refer to major processes and objects to be
studied. It is the relationship between these concepts which are stated in “the facts of science.” Such terms
make up the vocabulary that the scientist uses. If knowledge is to be organized, there must be some system
imposed upon the facts which are observable. As a consequence, a major task in any science is the
Theory Building Is A Process Of
Increasing Abstraction
Theories
| Propositions |
| Concepts |
| Observation of objects |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 11
development of development of classification, a structure of concepts, and an increasingly precise set of
definitions for these terms.
Theory in summarizing role.
A further task which theory performs is to summarize concisely what is already known about the object of
study. These summaries may be divided into two simple categories: (1) empirical generalizations, and (2)
systems of relationships between propositions.
Although the scientist may think of his field as a complex structure of relationships, most of his daily work is
concerned with prior task: the simple addition of data, expressed in empirical generalizations. The
demographer may tabulate births and deaths during a given period in order to ascertain the crude rate of
reproduction. These facts are useful and are summarized in simple or complex theoretical relationships. As
body of summarizing statements develops, it is possible to see relationships between the statements.
Theorizing on a still larger scale, some may attempt to integrate the major empirical generalizations of an era.
It is through systems of propositions that many of our common statements must be interpreted. Facts are
seen within a framework rather than in an isolated fashion.
Theory predicts facts.
If theory summarizes facts and states a general uniformity beyond the immediate observation, it also becomes
a prediction of facts. This prediction has several facets. The most obvious is the extrapolation from the known
to the unknown. For example, we may observe that in every known case the introduction of Western
technology has led to a sharp drop in the death rate and a relatively minor drop in the birth rate of a given
nation, at least during the initial stages. Thus we predict that if Western technology is introduced into a native
culture, we shall find this process again taking place. Correspondingly we predict that in a region where
Western technology has already been introduced, we shall find that this process has occurred.
Theory points gaps in knowledge.
Since theory summarizes the known facts and predicts facts which have not been observed, it must also point
to areas which have not yet been explored.
Theory also points to gaps of a more basic kind. While these gaps are being filled, changes in the conceptual
scheme usually occur. An example from criminology may be taken. Although a substantial body of knowledge
had been built up concerning criminal behavior and it causes. A body of theory dealing with causation was
oriented almost exclusively to the crimes committed by the lower classes. Very little attention has been paid
to the crimes committed by the middle class or, more specifically, to the crimes labeled as “white collar” and
which grow out of the usual activities of businessmen. Such a gap would not be visible if our facts were not
systematized and organized. As a consequence, we may say that theory does suggest where our knowledge
is deficient.
Role of Facts (Research)
Theory and fact are in constant interaction. Developments in one may lead to developments in the other.
Theory, implicit or explicit, is basic to knowledge and even perception. Theory is not merely a passive element.
It plays an active role in the uncovering of facts. We should expect that “fact” has an equally significant part
to play in the development of theory. Science actually depends upon a continuous stimulation of fact by theory
and of theory by fact.
Facts initiate theory.
Many of the human interest stories in the history of science describe how a striking fact, sometimes stumbled
upon, led to important theories. This is what the public thinks of as a “discovery.” Examples may be taken
from many sciences: accidental finding that the penicillium fungus inhibits bacterial growth; many errors in
reading, speaking, or seeing are not accidental but have deep and systematic causes. Many of these stories
take an added drama in the retelling, but they express a fundamental fact in the growth of science, that an
apparently simple observation may lead to significant theory.
Facts lead to the rejection and reformulation of existing theory.
Facts do not completely determine theory, since many possible theories can be developed to take account of
a specific set of observation. Nevertheless, facts are the more stubborn of the two. Any theory must adjust
to facts and is rejected or reformulated if they cannot be fitted into its structure. Since research is continuing
activity, rejection and reformulation are likely to be going on simultaneously. Observations are gradually
accumulated which seem to cast doubt upon existing theory. While new tests are being planned, new
formulations of theory are developed which might fit these new facts.
Facts redefine and clarify theory.
Usually the scientist has investigated his/her problem for a long time prior to actual field or laboratory test and
is not surprised by his/her results. It is rare that he/she finds a fact that simply does not fit prior theory. New
facts that fit the theory will always redefine the theory, for they state in detail what the theory states in very
general terms. They clarify that theory, for they throw further light upon its concepts.
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 12 |
| Theory and Research: the Dynamic Duo |
| Lesson 5 CONCEPTS |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 13
problems of measurement. Therefore, not only the construction of concepts is necessary but also
these should be precise and the researchers should have some agreement to its meaning.
Identification of concepts is necessary because we use concepts in hypothesis formulation. Here too
one of the characteristics of a good hypothesis is that it should be conceptually clear.
The success of research hinges on (1) how clearly we conceptualize and (2) how well others
understand the concept we use. For example we might ask respondents for an estimate of their
family income. This may seem to be a simple, unambiguous concept, but we may receive varying
and confusing answers unless we restrict or narrow the concept by specifying:
1. Time period, such as weekly, monthly, or annually.
2. Before or after income taxes.
3. For head of the family only or for all family members.
4. For salary and wages only or also for dividends, interest, and capital gains.
5. Income in kind, such as free rent, employee discounts, or food stamps.
Definitions:
Confusion about the meaning of concepts can destroy a research study‟s value without the
researcher or client even knowing it. If words have different meanings to the parties involved, then
they are not communicating on the same wave-length. Definitions are one way to reduce this danger.
Dictionary Definitions:
Researchers must struggle with two types of definitions. In the more familiar dictionary, a concept is
defined with synonyms. For example, a customer is defined as a patron: a patron, in turn, is defined
as customer or client of an establishment; a client is defined as one who employs the services of any
professional …, also loosely, a patron of any shop. These circular definitions may be adequate for
general communication but not for research.
Dictionary definitions are also called conceptual or theoretical or nominal definitions. Conceptual
definition is a definition in abstract, theoretical terms. It refers to other ideas or constructs. There is
no magical way to turn a construct into precise conceptual definition. It involves thinking carefully,
observing directly, consulting with others, reading what others have said, and trying possible
definitions.
A single construct can have several definitions, and people may disagree over definitions. Conceptual
definitions are linked to theoretical frameworks and to value positions. For example, a conflict theorist
may define social class as the power and property a group of people in a society has or lacks. A
structural functionalist defines it in terms of individual who share a social status, life-style, or
subjective justification. Although people disagree over definitions, the researcher should always state
explicitly which definition he or she is using.
Some constructs are highly abstract and complex. They contain lower level concepts within them
(e.g. powerlessness), which can be made even more specific (e.g. a feeling of little power over
wherever on lives). Other concepts are concrete and simple (e.g. age). When developing definitions,
a researcher needs to be aware of how complex and abstract a construct is. For example, a concrete
construct such as age is easier to define (e.g. number of years that have passed since birth) than is
a complex, abstract concept such as morale.
Operational Definition
In research we must measure concepts and constructs, and this requires more rigorous definitions.
A concept must be made operational in order to be measured. An operational definition gives
meanings to a concept by specifying the activities or operations necessary to measure it. An
operational definition specifies what must be done to measure the concept under investigation. It is
like a manual of instruction or a recipe: do such-and-such in so-andso manner.
Operational definition is also called a working definition stated in terms of specific testing or
measurement criteria. The concepts must have empirical referents (i.e. we must be able to count,
measure, or in some other way gather the information through our senses). Whether the object to
be defined is physical e.g. a machine tool) or highly abstract (e.g. achievement motivation), the
definition must specify characteristics and how to be observed. The specification and procedures
must be so clear that any competent person using them would classify the objects the same way.
So in operational definition we must specify concrete indicators that can be observed/measured
(observable indicators).
Use both Definitions in Research
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 14 |
| Look at observable phenomenon, we construct a label for it, then try to define it theoretically, which |
| Lesson 06 VARIABLES AND TYPES OF VARIABLES |
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 15 |
| Research studies indicate that successful new product development has an influence on the stock market |
| Lesson 7 HYPOTHESIS TESTING & CHARACTERISTICS |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 16
We have already seen that propositions are statements about variables considered to be true or false. If the
phenomenon under consideration happens to be observable reality then they said statement could be
empirically tested. A proposition that can be verified to determine its reality is a hypothesis. Therefore one
can say that a hypothesis is a verifiable counterpart of a proposition.
A hypothesis may be defined as a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables, expressed
in the form of a testable statement. Relationship is proposed by using a strong logical argumentation. This
logical relationship may be part of theoretical framework of the study.
Let us look at some of the hypotheses:
1. Officers in my organization have higher than average level of commitment (variable).
2. Level of job commitment of the officers is associated with their level of efficiency.
3. Level of job commitment of the officers is positively associated with their level of efficiency.
4. The higher the level of job commitment of the officers the lower their level of absenteeism.
These are testable propositions. First hypothesis contains only one variable. The second one has two
variables which have been shown to be associated with each other but the nature of association has not been
specified (non-directional relationship). In the third hypothesis we have gone a step further where in addition
to the relationship between the two variables, the direction of relationship (positive) has also been given. In
the fourth hypothesis level of efficiency has been replaced with level of absenteeism, the direction of
relationship between the two variables has been specified (which is negative). In the following discussion you
will find these hypotheses being quoted as part of the examples.
Types of Hypotheses:
i. Descriptive Hypothesis
Descriptive hypothesis contains only one variable thereby it is also called as univariate hypothesis. Descriptive
hypotheses typically state the existence, size, form, or distribution of some variable.
The first hypothesis contains only one variable. It only shows the distribution of the level of commitment among
the officers of the organization which is higher than average. Such a hypothesis is an example of a Descriptive
Hypothesis.
Researchers usually use research questions rather than descriptive hypothesis. For example a question can
be: What is the level of commitment of the officers in your organization?
ii. Relational Hypothesis
These are the propositions that describe a relationship between two variables. The relationship could be nondirectional or directional, positive or negative, causal or simply co-relational.
While stating the relationship between the two variables, if the terms of positive, negative, more than, or less
than are used then such hypotheses are directional because the direction of the relationship between the
variables (positive/negative) has been indicated (see hypotheses 3 and 4). These hypotheses are relational
as well as directional. The directional hypothesis is the one in which the direction of the relationship has been
specified.
Non-directional hypothesis is the one in which the direction of the association has not been specified. The
relationship may be very strong but whether it is positive or negative has not been postulated (see hypothesis
2).
Co-relational hypotheses:
State merely that the variables occur together in some specified manner without implying that one causes the
other. Such weak claims are often made when we believe that there are more basic causal forces that affect
both variables. For example:
Level of job commitment of the officers is positively associated with their level of efficiency.
Here we do not make any claim that one variable causes the other to change. That will be possible only if we
have control on all other factors that could influence our dependent variable.
Explanatory (causal) hypotheses:
Imply the existence of, or a change in, one variable causes or leads to a change in the other variable. This
brings in the notions of independent and the dependent variables. Cause means to “help make happen.” So
the independent variable may not be the sole reason for the existence of, or change in the dependent variable.
The researcher may have to identify the other possible causes, and control their effect in case the causal
effect of independent variable has to be determined on the dependent variable. This may be possible in an
experimental design of research.
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 17
Different ways to state hypotheses
1. Hi motivation causes hi efficiency.
2. Hi motivation leads to hi efficiency.
3. Hi motivation is related to hi efficiency.
4. Hi motivation influences hi efficiency.
5. Hi motivation is associated with hi efficiency.
6. Hi motivation produces hi efficiency.
7. Hi motivation results in hi efficiency.
8. If hi motivation then hi efficiency.
9. The higher the motivation, the higher the efficiency
iii. Null Hypothesis:
It is used for testing the hypothesis formulated by the researcher. Researchers treat evidence that supports
a hypothesis differently from the evidence that opposes it. They give negative evidence more importance than
to the positive one. It is because the negative evidence tarnishes the hypothesis. It shows that the predictions
made by the hypothesis are wrong. The null hypothesis simply states that there is no relationship between
the variables or the relationship between the variables is “zero.” That is how symbolically null hypothesis is
denoted as “H0”.
For example:
H0 = There is no relationship between the level of job commitment and the level of efficiency. Or
H0 = The relationship between level of job commitment and the level of efficiency is zero. Or
The two variables are independent of each other.
It does not take into consideration the direction of association (i.e. H0 is non directional), which may be a
second step in testing the hypothesis. First we look whether or not there is an association then we go for the
direction of association and the strength of association. Experts recommend that we test our hypothesis
indirectly by testing the null hypothesis. In case we have any credibility in our hypothesis then the research
data should reject the null hypothesis. Rejection of the null hypothesis leads to the acceptance of the
alternative hypothesis.
iv. Alternative Hypothesis
The alternative (to the null) hypothesis simply states that there is a relationship between the variables under
study. In our example it could be: there is a relationship between the level of job commitment and the level of
efficiency. Not only there is an association between the two variables under study but also the relationship is
perfect which is indicated by the number “1”. Thereby the alternative hypothesis is symbolically denoted as
“H1”. It can be written like this:
H1: There is a relationship between the level of job commitment of the officers and their level of efficiency.
v. Research Hypothesis
Research hypothesis is the actual hypothesis formulated by the researcher which may also suggest the nature
of relationship i.e. the direction of relationship. In our example it could be:
Level of job commitment of the officers is positively associated with their level of efficiency.
The Role of the Hypothesis
In research, a hypothesis serves several important functions:
It guides the direction of the study: Quite frequently one comes across a situation when the researcher
tries to collect all possible information on which he could lay his hands on. Later on he may find that only part
of it he could utilize. Hence there was an unnecessary use of resources on trivial concerns. In such a situation,
hypothesis limits what shall be studied and what shall not be.
It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not: Who shall be studied (married couples), in what
context they shall be studied (their consumer decision making), and what shall be studied (their individual
perceptions of their roles).
It suggests which form of research design is likely to be the most appropriate: Depending upon the
type of hypothesis a decision is made about the relative appropriateness of different research designs for the
study under consideration. The design could be a survey design, experimental design, content analysis, case
study, participation observation study, and/or Focus Group Discussions.
4. It provides a framework for organizing the conclusions of the findings
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 18 |
| The Characteristics of a Testable Hypothesis: |
| Lesson 8 REVIEW OF LITERATURE |
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 19 |
| Types of Reviews |
| Lesson 9 CONDUCTING A SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW |
Ahmad, B. (2005) Technology and immediacy of information. [on line] Available
http://www.bnet.act.com
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 20
Also decide how to record the bibliographic citations for each reference. May be beginning a file folder or
computer file in which you can place possible sources and ideas for new sources.
Locate research reports:
Locating research reports depends on the type of report or “outlet” of research being searched. Use multiple
search strategies in order to counteract the limitations of single search method.
Articles in Scholarly Journals: Most social and behavioral research is likely published in scholarly journals.
These journals are the vehicles of communication in science. There are dozens of journal, many going back
decades, each containing many articles. Locating the relevant articles is formidable task.
Many academic fields have “abstracts” or “indexes” for the scholarly literature. Find them in reference section
of the library. (Many available on compute as well). Such indexes and abstracts are published regularly.
Another resource for locating articles is the computerized literature search. Researchers organize
computerized searches in several ways – by author, by article title, by subject, or by keyword. A keyword is
an important term for a topic that is likely to be found in a title. You will want to use six to eight keywords in
most computer based searches and consider several synonyms.
Scholarly Books: Finding scholarly books on a subject can be difficult. The subject topics of a library catalog
systems are usually incomplete and too broad to be useful. A person has to be well conversant with the library
cataloging system.
Dissertations: A publication called Dissertation Abstract International lists most dissertations. It organizes
dissertations by broad subject category, author, and date.
Government Documents: The “government documents” sections of libraries contain specialized lists of
government documents.
Policy Reports and Presented Papers. The most difficult sources to locate are policy reports and presented
papers. They are listed in some bibliographies of published studies; some are listed in the abstracts or
indexes.
What to Record:
After you locate a source, you should write down all details of the reference (full names of the authors, titles,
volumes, issue, pages)
Write the Review:
A literature review requires planning and good, clear writing, which requires lot of rewriting. Keep your
purposes in mind when you write, and communicate clearly and effectively.
To prepare a good review, read articles and other literature critically. Skepticism is the norm of science. It
means that you should not accept what is written simply on the basis of authority of its having been published.
Question what you read, and evaluate it.
Critically reading research reports requires skills and take time and practice to develop. When reading an
article, read carefully to see whether the introduction and title really fit with the rest of the article. Sometimes,
titles, abstracts, or the introduction are misleading. They may not fully explain the research project‟s method
and results.
The most critical areas of an article to read are the methods and results sections. Few studies are perfect.
Researchers do not always describe the methods they used as fully as they should. Sometimes the results
presented in tables or charts do not match what the researcher says. Some points may be over emphasized
and others ignored. Check the conclusions, theses may not be consistent with the results.
What does a good review look like?
The author should communicate a review‟s purpose to the reader by its organization. The wrong way to write
a review is to list a series of research reports with a summary of the findings of each. This fails to communicate
a sense of purpose. It reads as a set of notes strung together. Perhaps the reviewer got sloppy and skipped
over the important organizing step in writing the review.
The right way to write a review is to organize common findings or arguments together. A well accepted
approach is to address the most important ideas first, to logically link statements or findings, and to note
discrepancies or weaknesses in the present.
The writing process:
Your audience:
Professional writers say: Always know for whom are you writing. This is because communication is more
effective when it is tailored to a specific audience. You should write research report differently depending on
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 21 |
| whether the primary audience is the instructor, students, professional colleagues, practitioners, or the general |
| Lesson 10 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK |
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 22 |
| 1. Make an inventory of variables: For developing a framework it appears essential to identify the factors |
| Lesson 11 PROBLEM DEFINITION AND RESEARCH PROPOSAL |
• Inventory of variables:
Equity of pay, job complexity, participation of decision making, job satisfaction, job performance,
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 23
The research process consists of a number of steps. The first step in any research is selecting the topic, which
could start from the broad area of interest. There is no set formula for the identification of a topic of research.
The best guide is to conduct research on something that interest you. Nevertheless, there could be a variety
of sources like: personal experiences, emerging curiosities from the issues being reported in the mass media,
developments in the knowledge, solving problems (relating to an organization, a family, education, and
economy), and “hot” issues pertaining to everyday life. Broad area of interest could be „labor unions.‟ As one
could see from the literature, there are a large number of books and perhaps thousands of articles covering
various aspects of labor unions. These articles and books have been written by researchers hailing from
different subject specialties and using variety of perspectives. Therefore the researcher should narrow down
the topic to some specific aspect of labor unions. For example, to what extent do the labor unions protect the
rights of female workers?
Techniques for Narrowing a Topic into a Research Question:
In order to narrow down the focus of research, try to get the background information from different sources.
For example:
1. Examine the literature:
Published articles are an excellent source of ideas for research questions. They are usually at an
appropriate level of specificity and suggest research questions that focus on the following:
1. Explore unexpected findings discovered in previous research.
2. Follow suggestions an author gives for future research at the end of an article.
3. Extend an existing explanation or theory to a new topic or setting.
4. Challenge findings or attempt to refute a relationship.
5. Specify the intervening process and consider linking relations.
2. Talk over ideas with others:
1. Ask people who are knowledgeable about the topic for questions about it that they have thought of.
2. Seek out those who hold opinions that differ from yours on the topic and discuss possible research
questions with them.
3. Apply to a specific context:
1. Focus the topic into a specific historical period of time.
2. Narrow the topic to a specific society or geographic unit.
3. Consider which subgroups or categories of people/units are involved and whether there are
differences among them.
4.Define the aim or desired outcome of the study:
1. Will the research question be for an exploratory, explanatory, or descriptive study?
2. Will the study involve applied or basic research?
From the Research Question to Hypotheses:
Tentative answers to the research question help in the identification of variables that could be used as
explanatory factors for building up the argumentation in the development of propositions relevant to the topic.
In our example the factors may be the prospects of membership of female workers of labor unions, actual
membership, support of their men folk for membership, participation in the general body meetings,
membership of the executive body of labor union, and so on. These very propositions become the basis of
testable hypotheses. Similarly, the inventory of the propositions is helpful in developing the theoretical
framework for the research project.
Problem Definition:
After the interviews and the literature review, the researcher is in a position to narrow down the problem from
its original broad base and define the issues of concern more clearly. It is critical that the focus of further
research be unambiguously identified and defined. Problem definition or problem statement is a clear, precise,
and succinct statement of the question or issue that is to be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or
solution. For example the problem could pertain to (1) existing business problems where the manager is
looking for a solution, (2) situation that may not pose any current problems but which the manager feels have
scope for improvement, (3) areas where some conceptual clarity is needed for better theory building, or (4)
situations in which a researcher is trying to answer a research question empirically because of interest in the
topic.
Sponsored Researches:
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 24 |
| So far we have been discussing research project primarily from the perspective that a researcher is likely to |
| Lesson 12 THE RESEARCH PROCESS |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 25
specific issues that need to be researched within the situation may not be identified at this stage. Such issues
might pertain to (1) problem currently existing in an organizational setting that need to be solved (sexual
harassment), (2) areas that a manager believes need to be improved in the organization (improving the
existing policies), (3) a conceptual or theoretical issue that needs to be tightened up for basic researcher or to
understand certain phenomenon (conceptual definition of harassment), and (4) some research questions that
a basic researcher wants to answer empirically (impact of harassment on the performance of the workers).
2. Preliminary Data Collection
This step may be considered as part of the exploratory research. An exploration typically begins with a
search for published data and studies. Such sources can provide secondary data which becomes part of the
background information (about the organization, groups of people, context of the issue). Some secondary
sources of data are statistical bulletins, government publications, information published or unpublished, case
studies, online data, web sites, and the Internet. In addition, the researchers often seek out people who are
well informed on the topic, especially those who have clearly stated positions on controversial aspects of the
problem. Such persons can be the professional researchers, or the informants to whom the issues relate. In
certain situations it may be appropriate to have some focus group discussions with the relevant people. Such
discussions help in the identification of variables and having clarification of the issue
3. Problem Definition
After having discussions with the professionals as well as with the persons to whom the issue relates, and the
review of literature, the researcher is in a position to narrow down from its original broad base and define the
issue clearly. Translate the broad issue into a research question. As part of the applied research convert the
management dilemma into a management question, and then on to research question that fits the need to
resolve the dilemma. The symptoms of a problem might help tracing the real problem. For example a
productivity decline of workers may be an issue. The management may have tried to solve it by the provision
of incentive but did not work. The researcher may have to dig deep and find the possible factors like the
morale and motivation of the workers having some other antecedents. There could be similar other broad
issues which have to be narrowed down to research questions like:
To what extent has the new advertising campaign been successful in creating the high quality,
consumer-centered corporate image that it was intended to produce?
Has the new packaging affected the sale of the products?
Will the day care centers affect the productivity of female workers?
Why the divorce rate is on the increase in Pakistan?
Why the family in Pakistan is changing?
What could be the impact of changing family patterns on the living of senior citizens?
4. Theoretical Framework
Consultations with the informants and professionals, and the review of literature should have helped in the
identification of different factors that are considered to be relevant to the topic. The researcher has to make
logical relationship among several factors identified earlier. This will help in the delineation of the theoretical
framework. The theoretical framework discusses the interrelationships among the variables that are deemed
to be integral to the dynamics of the situation being investigated. Developing such a conceptual framework
helps to postulate or hypothesize and test certain relationships.
We have already discussed the components of a theoretical framework.
5. Generation of Hypotheses
Once we have identified the important variables relevant to an issue and established the logical reasoning in
the theoretical framework, we are in a position to test whether the relationships that have been theorized do
in fact hold true. By testing these relationships scientifically, we are in a position to obtain reliable information
to determine the relationship among the variables. The results of these tests offer us part of the answers to
the formulated research questions, whether these relate basic research or to applied research.
6. Research Design
Research design is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing the
needed information. It is a framework or the blueprint that plans the action for research project. The objectives
of the study determined during the early stages of the research are included in the design to ensure that the
information collected is appropriate for solving the problem. The researcher must specify the sources of
information, and the research method or technique (survey or experiment, for example) to be followed in the
study.
Broadly there are six basic research methods for descriptive and causal research: surveys, experiments,
observation, communication analysis (content analysis), case study, focus group discussion. Use of
secondary data may be another method where the data may have been collected by using any of the six basic
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 26
methods listed earlier. The objectives of the research, the available data sources the urgency of the decision
and the cost of obtaining the data will determine the method to be chosen.
Surveys: The most common method of generating primary data is through surveys. Survey is a research
technique in which information is gathered from a sample of people using a questionnaire. The task of writing
a list of questions and designing the exact format of the printed or written questionnaire is an essential aspect
of the development of survey research design.
Research investigators may choose to contact the respondents in person, by telephone, by mail, or on the
internet. Each of these techniques has advantages and disadvantages. The researcher‟s task is to choose
the most appropriate one for collecting the information needed.
Experiments: Experiments hold the greatest potential for establishing cause-and-effect relationships. The
use of experimentation allows investigation of changes in one variable, such as productivity, while
manipulating one or more variables, perhaps social rewards or monetary rewards, under controlled conditions.
Ideally, experimental control provides a basis for isolating causal factors, because outside (or exogenous)
influences do not come into play.
An experiment controls conditions so that one or more variables can be manipulated in order to test a
hypothesis. In the laboratory experiments, compared with the field experiment, it is possible to create
controlled conditions for the manipulation of one or more variables and see its effect on the dependent variable
by holding the extraneous factors constant.
Observation techniques: Observation can be non-participant or participant. In many situations the objective
of a research project is merely to record what can be observed – for example the number of automobiles that
pass the proposed site for a gas station. This can be mechanically recorded or observed by any person. This
is an unobtrusive study without a respondent‟s direct participation. In participant observation studies, the
researcher takes part in the day to day activities, interviews them, and makes observations. Such a study
generates qualitative data and lasts for a long duration.
Communication analysis: It is also called content analysis which means gathering and analyzing the content
of the text. The content refers to words, meanings, pictures, symbols, ideas, themes, or any message that
can be communicated. The text is anything written, visual, or spoken that serves as a medium of
communication. It includes books, newspapers, advertisements, speeches, official documents, films or
videotapes, photographs, articles of clothing, or works of art.
Case study: It is an in-depth analysis of a unit which could be an individual person, a couple, a group, or an
organization. It is more like a clinical analysis in retrospect; starting from the effect and tracing the reasons
back in time. The researcher takes the history of the situation and makes use of any other relevant information
about the case to identify the factors leading to the present situation.
Focus group discussions: It is a discussion of an issue by 6-12 persons with a moderator for 1-2 hours. The
issue can be a public concern, a product, a television program, a political candidate, or a policy. Focus groups
are useful in exploratory research or to generate new ideas for hypotheses, and the interpretation of results.
It produces qualitative information which may compliment the quantitative data.
Researchers try to evaluate different research designs and select the most appropriate one that helps in getting
the relevant information. There is no one best research design for all situations.
7. Data Collection, Data Processing, and Analysis
Data collection is integral part of the research design, though we are dealing it separately. Data collection is
determined by the research technique selected for the project. Data can be collected in a variety of ways, in
different settings – field or lab – and from different sources. It could include interviews – face to face interviews,
telephone interviews, computer-assisted interviews, and interviews through electronic media; questionnaires
that either personally administered, sent through mail, or electronically administered; observation of individuals
and events which could be participant or non-participant.
Once the fieldwork has been completed, the data must be converted into a format that will answer the research
questions and or help testing the hypotheses. Data processing generally begins with the editing and coding
of the data. Editing involves checking the data collection forms for omissions, legibility, and consistency in
classification. The editing process corrects problems such as interviewer errors prior to the data are
transferred to a computer. Coding may be the assigning of numbers or symbols before it goes to the computer.
The computer can help in making tables and the application of different statistics.
Analysis is the application of reasoning to understand and interpret the data that have been collected. The
appropriate analytical technique is to be determined by the research design, and the nature of the data
collected.
8. Testing the Hypotheses; Answering the Research Questions
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 27
The analysis and interpretation of the data shall be the means to testing the formulated hypotheses as well as
finding answers to the research questions. In case of applied research, the research should be helpful in
finding solutions to the problems of the organization or society. Making recommendations may also be part
of this process.
9. Report Writing
The research report should communicate the research findings effectively. All too often the report is a
complicated statement of the study‟s technical aspects and sophisticated research methods. If the study has
been conducted for a business management, often the management is not interested in detailed reporting of
the research design and statistical findings but wants only the summary of the findings. Research is only as
good as the applications made of it. Nevertheless, the research report becomes a historical document, a
record that may be referred to in later studies. In case of research for academic purposes the research findings
become part of the body of knowledge, and the research may producing research papers for publication in
professional journals.
The report has to be presented in the format as it may have been part of the terms of reference if it is a
sponsored study. In case of a dissertation the Universities have some standardized styles which have to be
followed. Similarly the research papers have to be prepared in accordance with the format specified by the
professional journals.
The graphic presentation of the research process may be like this:
The Research Process
OBSERVATION
Broad area of
research interest
identified
PRELIMINARY
DATA GATHERING
Interviewing Literature
survey
PROBLEM
DEFINITION
Research problem
defined
THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK Generation of
hypothesis SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH
DATA
COLLECTION
ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION
D
| DEDUCTION |
| Yes |
Managerial
Decision
Making
Report
presentation
No Report Writing
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 28 |
| Lesson 13 ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH |
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 29 |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 30
If there is a chance the data could harm the respondent or if the researchers offer any limited protection of
confidentiality, a signed form detailing the types of limits should be obtained. For most business research, oral
consent is sufficient.
In situations where respondents are intentionally or accidentally deceived, they should be debriefed once the
research is complete.
Debriefing:
It involves several activities following the collection of data:
Explanation of any deception.
Description of the hypothesis, goal, or purpose of the study.
Post study sharing of the results.
Post study follow-up medical or psychological attention.
First, the researcher shares the truth of any deception with the participants and all the reasons for using
deception in the context of the study‟s goals. In cases where severe reactions occur, follow-up medical or
psychological attention should be provided to continue to ensure the participants remain unharmed by the
research.
Even when the research does not deceive the respondents, it is a good practice to offer them follow-up
information. This retains the goodwill of the respondent, providing an incentive to participate in future research
projects. For surveys and interviews, respondents can be offered a brief report of the findings. Usually they
would not ask for additional information.
For experiments, all participants should be debriefed in order to put the experiment in context. Debriefing
usually includes a description of the hypothesis being tested and the purpose of the study. Participants who
were not deceived still benefit from the debriefing session. They will be able to understand why the experiment
was created. The researchers also gain important insight into what the participants thought about during and
after the experiment.
To what extent do debriefing and informed consent reduce the effects of deception? Research suggests that
the majority of the respondents do not resent temporary deception and may have more positive feelings about
the value of the research after debriefing than those who didn‟t participate in the study.
Rights to Privacy
All individuals have right to privacy, and researchers must respect that right. The privacy guarantee is
important not only to retain validity of the research but also to protect respondents. The confidentiality of the
survey answers is an important aspect of the respondents‟ right to privacy.
Once the guarantee of confidentiality is given, protecting that confidentiality is essential. The researcher
protects the confidentiality in several ways;
Obtaining signed nondisclosure documents.
Restricting access to respondent identification.
Revealing respondent information only with written consent.
Restricting access to data instruments where the respondent is identified.
Nondisclosure of data subsets.
Privacy is more than confidentiality. A right to privacy means one has the right to refuse to be interviewed
or to refuse to answer any question in an interview. Potential participants have a right to privacy in their own
homes including not admitting researchers and not answering telephones. To address these rights, ethical
researchers do the following:
Inform respondents of their right to refuse to answer any questions or participate in the study.
Obtain permission to interview respondents.
Schedule field and phone interviews.
Limit the time required for participation.
Restrict observation to public behavior only.
The obligation to be truthful: When a subject willingly agrees to participate, it is generally expected that he
or she will provide truthful answers. Honest cooperation is main obligation of the respondent or the subject.
Ethics and the Sponsor
There are also ethical considerations to keep in mind when dealing with the research client or sponsor has the
right to receive ethically conducted research.
Confidentiality of Sponsor
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 31 |
| Some sponsors wish to undertake research without revealing themselves. They have a right to several types |
| Lesson 15 MEASUREMENT OF CONCEPTS |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 32
you heard a principal complain about teacher morale in a school. Teacher morale is an empirical reality, and
we can create some instrument for its measurement.
Measurement in Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Both qualitative and quantitative researchers use careful, systematic methods to gather high quality data. Yet,
differences in the styles of research and the types of data mean they approach the measurement process
differently. Designing precise ways to measure variables is a vital step in planning a study for quantitative
researchers. Qualitative researchers use wider variety of techniques to measure and create new measures
while collecting data. The two approaches to measurement have three distinctions.
One difference between the two styles involves timing. Quantitative researchers extensively think about
variables and convert them into specific actions during a planning stage that occurs before and separate from
gathering or analyzing data. Measurement for qualitative researchers occurs in the data collection process,
and only a little occurs in a separate, planning stage prior to data gathering.
A second difference involves the data itself. Quantitative researchers want to develop techniques that can
produce quantitative data (i.e. data in the form of numbers). Thus, the researcher moves from abstract ideas,
or variables, to specific data collection techniques to precise numerical information produced by the
techniques. The numerical information is an empirical representation of the abstract ideas. Data for qualitative
researchers sometimes is in the form of numbers; more often it includes written or spoken word, actions,
sounds, symbols, physical objects, or visual images. The qualitative researcher does not convert all
observations into a single, common medium such as numbers. Instead he or she develops many flexible,
ongoing processes to measure that leaves the data in various shapes, sizes, and forms.
All researchers combine ideas and data to analyze the social world. In both research styles, data are empirical
representation of concepts, and measurement is a process that links data to concepts.
A third difference is how the two styles make such linkages. Quantitative researchers contemplate and reflect
on concepts before they gather data. They construct measurement techniques that bridge concepts and data.
The measurement techniques define what the data will be and are directions for gathering data.
Qualitative researchers also reflect on ideas before data collection, but they develop many, if not most, of their
concepts during data collection activities. Researchers start gathering data and creating ways to measure
based what they encounter. As they gather data, they reflect on the process and develop new ideas. The
ideas give them direction and suggest new ways to measure.
Here we shall focus on quantitative measurement. Here measurement consists of assigning numbers to
empirical events in compliance with set rules. This definition implies that measurement is a threepart process:
Selecting observable empirical events.
Developing a set of mapping rules: a scheme for assigning numbers or symbols to represent aspects
of the event being measured.
Applying the mapping rule(s) to each observation of that event.
Assume you are studying people who attend an auto show where all new models are on display introduced in
a specific year. You are interested in learning the male-to female ratio among attendees. You observe those
who enter the show area. If a person is female, you record an F; if male, an M. Any other symbols such as 0
and 1 may also be used if you know what group the symbol identifies.
Researchers might also want to measure the desirability of the styling of the new Espace van. They interview
a sample of visitors and assign, with a different mapping rule, their opinions to the following scale:
What is your opinion of the styling of the Espace van?
Very desirable 5_______4_______3_______2________1 Very undesirable
We can assign a weightage (score) like:
5 if it is very desirable
4 if desirable
3 if neither
2 if undesirable
1 if very undesirable.
All measurement theorists would call such opinion rating scale as a form of measurement.
What is measured?
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 33
Variable being studied in research may be classified as objects or as properties.
Objects include the things of ordinary experience, such as tables, people, books, and automobiles. Objects
also include things that are not as concrete, such as genes, attitudes, neutrons, and peer group pressures.
Properties are the characteristics of the objects. A person‟s physical properties may be stated in terms of
weight, height, and posture. Psychological properties include attitudes, intelligence, motivation, perceptions,
etc. Social properties include leadership ability, class affiliation, or status. These and many other properties
of an individual can be measured in a research study.
In a literal sense, researchers do not measure either objects or properties. They measure indicants of the
properties or indicants of the properties of the objects. The properties like age, years of experience, and the
number of calls made per week are easier to indicate and there is expected to be lot of agreement.
In contrast, it is not easy to measure properties like “motivation,” “ability to stand stress,” “problemsolving
ability,” and “persuasiveness.” Since each property cannot be measured directly, one must infer its presence
or absence by observing some indicant or pointer measurement. When you begin to make these inferences,
there is often disagreement about how to operationalize the indicants.
The preceding discussion suggests two types of variables: one lends itself to objective and precise
measurement; the other is more vague and does not lend itself to accurate measurement because of its
subjective nature. However, despite the lack of physical measuring devices to measure the latter type, there
are ways to tapping the subjective feelings and perceptions of individuals. One technique is to reduce the
abstract notions, or concepts such as motivation, involvement, satisfaction, buyer behavior, stock market
exuberance, and the like, to observable behavior and characteristics. In other words, the abstract notions are
broken down into observable characteristic behavior. Reducing the abstract concepts to render them
measurable in a tangible way is called operationalizing the concepts.
Parts of the Measurement Process
When a researcher measures, he or she takes a concept, idea, or construct and develops a measure (i.e. a
technique, a process, a procedure) by which he or she can observe the idea empirically. Quantitative
researchers primarily follow a deductive route. To begin with the abstract idea, follow with a measurement
procedure, and end with empirical data that represent the ideas. Qualitative researchers primarily follow
inductive route. They begin with empirical data, follow with abstract ideas, follow with processes relating with
ideas and data, and end with a mixture of ideas and data.
Researchers use two processes: conceptualization and operationalization in measurement.
a. Conceptualization
Conceptualization is the process of taking a construct and refining it by giving it a conceptual or theoretical
definition. A conceptual definition is definition in abstract, theoretical terms. It refers to other ideas or
constructs. There is no magical way to turn a construct into a precise conceptual definition. It involves thinking
carefully, observing directly, consulting with others, reading what others have said, and trying possible
definitions.
A good definition has one clear, explicit, and specific meaning. There is no ambiguity or vagueness in the
concepts (e.g. street gang, morale, motivation, social class, consumer satisfaction). A single construct can
have several definitions, and people may disagree over definitions. Conceptual definitions are linked to
theoretical frameworks and to value positions. For example, a conflict theorist may define social class as the
power and property a group of people in society has or lacks. A structural functionalist defines it in terms of
individuals who share a social status, life-style, or subjective identification. Although people disagree over
definitions, the researcher should always state explicitly which definition he or she is using.
Before you can measure, you need a concept. You also need to distinguish what you are interested in from
other things. The idea that you first need a construct or concept of what is to be measured simply makes
sense. How can you observe or measure something unless you know what you are looking for? For example,
we want to measure teacher morale. We first define teacher morale. What does the construct morale mean?
As a variable construct, it takes on different values – high versus low or good versus bad morale. Next we
create a measure of this construct. This could take the form of survey questions, an examination of school
records, or observations of teachers. Also we distinguish morale from other things in the answers to survey
questions, school records, or observations.
How can we develop a conceptual definition of teacher morale, or at least a tentative working definition to get
started? Look in the everyday understanding of morale – something vague like “how people feel about things.”
Also look in the dictionary, which gives definitions like “confidence, spirit, zeal, cheerfulness, esprit de corps,
and mental condition towards something.” Look into the review of literature and see how other researchers
have defined this concept. In this effort we collect various definitions, parts of definitions, and related ideas,
whereby we draw the boundaries of the core idea.
We find that most of these definitions say that morale is a spirit, feeling, or mental condition toward something,
or a group feeling. But we are interested in teacher morale. We can ask teachers to specify as what does this
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 34 |
| construct mean to them? One strategy is to make a list of examples of high or low teacher morale. High |
| Lesson 16 MEASUREMENT OF CONCEPTS (CONTINUED) |
Employees‟ feelings toward their job.
Degree of satisfaction that individuals obtain from various roles they play in an organization.
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 35 |
| On each dimension the researcher has to develop logical arguments showing how this particular aspect (thing) |
| Lesson 17 MEASUREMENT OF CONCEPTS (CONTINUED) |
No. Statements S. Agree Agree Undecided Disagree S. Disagree
1 I have a good
opportunity for
advancement in my job
2 I feel very comfortable with my
coworkers
3 My pay is adequate to meet my
necessary expenses
4 My work gives me a
sense of
accomplishment
5 My boss is impolite and cold
6 My job is a dead-end job
7 The company of my co-workers
is boring
8 Pay at my level is less as
compared to other organizations
9 Most of the time I am frustrated
with my work
10 My boss praises good work and
is supportive
11 There is a chance of frequent
promotions in my job
12 My co-workers are a source of
inspiration for me
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 36
| 13 | I receive reasonable annual |
|
| 14 | My work is very challenging to |
|
| 15 | My boss is adept in his work |
|
| 16 | We have an unfair promotion |
|
| 17 | Working style of my co-workers i | s |
| 18 | The old-age benefits are quite | |
| 19 | Most of the time I do routine work | |
| 20 | My boss does not delegate | |
| 21 | Opportunity for promotion is | |
| 22 | My co-workers try to take credit | |
| 23 | My pay is commensurate with |
Scales and Indexes
Scales and indexes are often used interchangeably. Social researchers do not use a consistent nomenclature
to distinguish between the two.
A scale is a measure in which a researcher captures the intensity, direction, level, or potency of a variable
construct. It arranges responses or observations on a continuum or in series of categories. A scale can use
a single indicator or multiple indicators.
An index is a measure in which a researcher adds or combines several distinct indicators of a construct into a
single score. The composite scores is often a simple sum of the multiple indicators. Indexes are often
measured at the interval or ratio level.
Researchers sometimes combine the features of scales and indexes in a single measure. This is common
when a researcher has a several indicators that are scales (i.e. that measure intensity or direction). The
researcher then adds these indicators together to yield a single score, thereby creating an index.
Types of Scales
A scale refers to any series of items that are arranged progressively according to value or magnitude, into
which an item can be placed according to its quantification. In other words, a scale is a continuous spectrum
or series of categories.
It is traditional to classify scales of measurement on the basis of the mathematical comparisons that are
allowable with these scales. Four types of scales are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
Nominal Scale
A nominal scale is the one in which the numbers or letters assigned to objects serve as labels for identification
or classification. This measurement scale is the simplest type. With nominal data, we are collecting information
on a variable that naturally or by design can be grouped into two or more categories that are mutually
exclusive, and collectively exhaustive.
Nominal scales are the least powerful of the four scales. They suggest no order or distance relationship and
have no arithmetic origin. Nevertheless, if no other scale can be used, one can almost always one set of
properties into a set of equivalent classes.
Ordinal Scale
Ordinal scales include the characteristics of the nominal scale plus an indicator of order. If a is greater than b
and b is greater than c, then a is greater than c. The use of ordinal scale implies a statement of “greater than”
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 37 |
| or “less than” without stating how much greater or less. Other descriptors can be: “superior to,” “happier |
| Lesson 18 CRITERIA FOR GOOD MEASUREMENT |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 38
A panel of persons to judge how well the instrument meets the standard can attest to the content validity of
the instrument. A panel independently assesses the test items for a performance test. It judges each item to
be essential, useful but not essential, or not necessary in assessing performance of a relevant behavior.
Face validity is considered as a basic and very minimum index of content validity. Face validity indicates that
the items that are intended to measure a concept, do on the face of it look like they measure the concept. For
example a few people would accept a measure of college student math ability using a question that asked
students: 2 + 2 = ? This is not a valid measure of college-level math ability on the face of it. Nevertheless, it
is a subjective agreement among professionals that a scale logically appears to reflect accurately what it is
supposed to measure. When it appears evident to experts that the measure provides adequate coverage of
the concept, a measure has face validity.
(2) Criterion-Related Validity
Criterion validity uses some standard or criterion to indicate a construct accurately. The validity of an indicator
is verified by comparing it with another measure of the same construct in which research has confidence.
There are two subtypes of this kind of validity.
Concurrent validity: To have concurrent validity, an indicator must be associated with a preexisting indicator
that is judged to be valid. For example we create a new test to measure intelligence. For it to be concurrently
valid, it should be highly associated with existing IQ tests (assuming the same definition of intelligence is
used). It means that most people who score high on the old measure should also score high on the new one,
and vice versa. The two measures may not be perfectly associated, but if they measure the same or a similar
construct, it is logical for them to yield similar results.
Predictive validity: Criterion validity whereby an indicator predicts future events that are logically related to a
construct is called a predictive validity. It cannot be used for all measures. The measure and the action
predicted must be distinct from but indicate the same construct. Predictive measurement validity should not
be confused with prediction in hypothesis testing, where one variable predicts a different variable in future.
Look at the scholastic assessment tests being given to candidates seeking admission in different subjects.
These are supposed to measure the scholastic aptitude of the candidates – the ability to perform in institution
as well as in the subject. If this test has high predictive validity, then candidates who get high test score will
subsequently do well in their subjects. If students with high scores perform the same as students with average
or low score, then the test has low predictive validity.
(3) Construct Validity
Construct validity is for measures with multiple indicators. It addresses the question: If the measure is valid,
do the various indicators operate in consistent manner? It requires a definition with clearly specified conceptual
boundaries. In order to evaluate construct validity, we consider both theory and the measuring instrument
being used. This is assessed through convergent validity and discriminant validity.
Convergent Validity: This kind of validity applies when multiple indicators converge or are associated with
one another. Convergent validity means that multiple measures of the same construct hang together or
operate in similar ways. For example, we construct “education” by asking people how much education they
have completed, looking at their institutional records, and asking people to complete a test of school level
knowledge. If the measures do not converge (i.e. people who claim to have college degree but have no record
of attending college, or those with college degree perform no better than high school dropouts on the test),
then our test has weak convergent validity and we should not combine all three indicators into one measure.
Discriminant Validity: Also called divergent validity, discriminant validity is the opposite of convergent
validity. It means that the indicators of one construct hang together or converge, but also diverge or are
negatively associated with opposing constructs. It says that if two constructs A and B are very different, then
measures of A and B should not be associated. For example, we have 10 items that measure political
conservatism. People answer all 10 in similar ways. But we have also put 5 questions in the same
questionnaire that measure political liberalism. Our measure of conservatism has discriminant validity if the
10 conservatism items hang together and are negatively associated with 5 liberalism ones.
Reliability
The reliability of a measure indicates the extent to which it is without bias (error free) and hence ensures
consistent measurement across time and across the various items in the instrument. In other words, the
reliability of a measure is an indication of the stability and consistency with which the instrument measures the
concept and helps to assess the „goodness” of measure.
Stability of Measures
The ability of the measure to remain the same over time – despite uncontrollable testing conditions or the state
of the respondents themselves – is indicative of its stability and low vulnerability to changes in the situation.
This attests to its “goodness” because the concept is stably measured, no matter when it is done. Two tests
of stability are test-retest reliability and parallel-form reliability.
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 39 |
| Test-retest Reliability: Test-retest method of determining reliability involves administering the same scale |
| Lesson 19 RESEARCH DESIGN |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 40
unit of analysis, time dimension, mode of observation, sampling design, observation tools, data processing,
and data analysis. Let us look at each one of these elements.
1. Purpose of the Study
From the perspective of purpose of the study, a research can be exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory (the
distinctions we have already discussed). As we have already covered a number of steps in the research
process, at this stage it is assumed that we are pretty sure about what we are looking for whereby we have
gone much beyond the stage of an exploratory study (all studies have elements of exploration in them).
Beyond the exploratory stage now we are entering into the formal stage of delineating the plan for data
collection, data processing, and data analysis. Here our focus is on whether our study is going to be a
descriptive or explanatory. The essential difference between descriptive and explanatory studies lies in their
objectives. If the research is concerned with finding out who, what, where, when, or how much, then the study
is descriptive. If it is concerned with learning why – that is how one variable produces changes in another –
it is causal. Research on crime as such is descriptive when it measures the types of crimes committed, how
often, when, where, and by whom. In an explanatory study, we try to explain relationships among variables
– for instance, why the crime rate is higher in locality A than in locality B. Every explanatory study in the
beginning is likely to be descriptive as well.
Methodological rigor increases as one moves from exploratory study to explanatory study, which may
encompass hypothesis testing involving multiple methods of data collection, sophistications in sampling
designs, formulation of instruments of data collection, data processing, and data analysis. Since the purpose
of the study is likely to determine how rigorous the research design is likely to be, therefore, the researcher
would decide very early on about the purpose of his/her study.
Within the explanatory study, researcher may further decide about the type of investigation i.e. causal versus
correlational. The researcher must decide whether a causal or correlational study is needed to find an answer
to the issue at hand. The former is done when it is necessary to establish a definitive cause-and-effect
relationship. If the researcher just wants a mere identification of important factors “associated with” the
problem, then a correlational study is called for. Whether the study is basically a correlational or causal will
help in deciding about the mode of observation – survey study or an experimental study.
2. Unit of Analysis
The unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation of the data collected during the subsequent data analysis
stage. If, for instance, the problem statement focuses on how to raise the motivational levels of employees in
general, then we are interested in individual employees in the organization and would have to find out what
we can do to raise their motivation. Here the unit of analysis is the individual. We will be looking at the data
gathered from each individual and treating each employee‟s response as an individual data source.
If the researcher is interested in studying two-person interactions, then several two-person groups (also known
as dyads) will become the unit of analysis. Analysis of husband-wife interactions in families and supervisorsubordinate relationship at the work place, teacher-student relationship in the educational institution are good
examples of dyads as unit of analysis.
If the problem statement is related to group effectiveness, the unit of analysis would be at group level. In other
words, even though we may gather relevant data from all individuals comprising, say six groups, we would
aggregate the individual data into group data so as to see the differences among six groups. If we compare
different departments in the organization, then data analysis will be done at the department level – that is, the
individuals in the department will be treated as one unit – and comparisons made treating the department as
a unit of analysis.
The research question determines the unit of analysis. Keeping the research question in view, it is necessary
to decide on the unit of analysis since the data collection methods, sample size, and even the variables
included in the framework may sometimes be determined or guided by the level at which the data are
aggregated for analysis.
Units of analysis in a study are typically also the units of observation. Thus, to study voting intentions, we
would interview (observe) individual voters. Sometimes, however, we “observe” our units of analysis indirectly.
For example, we might ask husbands and wives their individual voting intentions, for purpose of distinguishing
couples who agree and disagree politically. We might want to find out whether political disagreements tend
to cause family disharmony, perhaps. In this case, our unit of analysis would be families, though the unit of
observation would be the individual wives and husbands.
3. Time Dimension
Do we make the observations more or less at one time or over a long period, former called as crosssectional
studies and the latter as longitudinal studies. While planning the strategy for data collection the time dimension
may be an important component.
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 41
Cross-Sectional Studies are carried out once and represent a snapshot of one point in time. Data are
collected just once, perhaps over a period of days or weeks or months, in order to answer the research
question.
Longitudinal Studies are repeated over an extended period. The advantage of longitudinal studies is that it
can track changes over time. For example, the researcher might want to study employees‟ behavior before
and after a change in the top management, so as to know what effects the change accomplished. Here,
because data are gathered at two different points in time, the study is not crosssectional or of the one-shot
kind, but is carried longitudinally across a period of time. Such studies, as when data on the dependent
variable are gathered at two or more points in time to answer the research question, are called longitudinal.
Longitudinal studies can be panel studies and cohort studies which were discussed earlier.
4. Researcher Control of Variables
In terms of researcher‟s ability to manipulate variables, we can differentiate between experimental and ex post
facto design. In an experiment, the researcher attempts to control and/or manipulate the variables in the
study. It is enough that we can cause variables to be changed or held constant in keeping with our research
objectives. Experimental design is appropriate when one wishes to discover whether certain variables produce
effects in other variables. Experimentation provides the most powerful support possible for hypothesis of
causation.
Experimental studies can be contrived and non-contrived. Research can be done in the natural environment
where work proceeds normally (i.e. in non-contrived setting) or in artificial, contrived setting. Correlational
studies are invariably conducted in non-contrived settings, whereas most rigorous causal studies are done in
contrived lab settings. Correlational studies done in organizations are called field studies. Studies conducted
to establish cause-and-effect relationship using the same natural environment are called field experiments.
Here the researcher does not interfere with the natural occurrence of events in as much as independent
variable is manipulated.
Experiments done to establish cause and effect relationship beyond the possibility of the least doubt require
the creation of an artificial, contrived environment in which all the extraneous factor are strictly controlled.
Similar subjects are chosen carefully to respond to certain manipulated stimuli. These studies are referred to
as lab experiments.
With an ex post facto design, investigators have no control over the variables in the sense of being able to
manipulate them. They can only report what has happened or what is happening. It is important that the
researchers using this design not influence the variables; to do so introduce bias. The researcher is limited to
holding factors constant by judicious selection of subjects according to strict sampling procedures and by
statistical manipulation of findings. Survey research is an example of such study.
5. Choice of Research Design: Mode of Observation
There could be number of ways to collect the data depending upon whether the study is quantitative or
qualitative, descriptive or explanatory, cross-sectional or longitudinal, and contrived or non-contrived, the
researcher decides about the mode of observation. The modes could be like: survey, experiment,
communication analysis (content analysis) field observation, case study, focus group discussion.
6. Sampling Design
The basic idea of sampling is that by selecting some of the elements in population, we may draw conclusions
about the entire population. A population element is the subject on which the measurement is being taken. It
is the unit of analysis. Sampling has its own advantages and disadvantages. Depending upon the nature of
the study the researchers decides about following appropriate type of sampling design.
7. Observation Tools
Observation tool mostly used by social researchers are: questionnaire, interview schedule, interview guide,
and check list. In the research design, the researcher will specify the tools of data collection along the logic
justifying the appropriateness of the selected tool.
8. Field Data Collection
Depending upon the mode of observation, the researcher will outline the procedure for field operations. The
researcher will try to look after the questions like: How the data will be collected? Who will be responsible for
the collections of data? What training will be imparted to the field functionaries? How will the quality control of
data be maintained?
9. Data Processing and Data Analysis
In the research design the researcher is required to tell how the data shall be processed (manually,
mechanically), and analysis plans explicated. In case the qualitative data are to be quantified the procedures
should be spelled out. The procedures for the construction of score Indexes, if any, should be explained. The
research design should also say something about the analysis plan, the use of statistics, and the inferences
to be drawn.
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 42 |
| Survey Research: An Overview |
| Lesson 20 SURVEY RESEARCH |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 43
Personal Interviewing
A personal interview (i.e. face to face communication) is a two way conversation initiated by an interviewer to
obtain information from a respondent. The differences in the roles of the interviewer and the respondent are
pronounced. They are typically strangers, and the interviewer generally controls the topics and patterns of
discussion. The consequences of the event are usually insignificant for the respondent. The respondent is
asked to provide information and has little hope of receiving any immediate or direct benefit from this
cooperation. Personal interviews may take place in a factory, in a homeowner‟s doorway, in an executive‟s
office, in a shopping mall, or in other settings.
Advantages of Personal Interviewing:
The face-to-face interaction between interviewer and respondent has several characteristics that help
researchers obtain complete and precise information. Personal interviews offer many advantages.
1. The Opportunity for Feedback
Personal interviews allow for feedback. For example, an employee who is reluctant to provide sensitive
information about his workplace may be reassured by the interviewer that his answers will be strictly
confidential. The interviewer may also provide feedback in clarifying any questions an employee or any other
respondent has about the instructions or questions. Circumstances may dictate that at the conclusion of the
interview, the respondent be given additional information concerning the purpose of the study (part of
debriefing). This is easily accomplished in personal interview.
2. Probing Complex Questions
An important characteristic of personal interview is the opportunity to follow up, by probing. If a respondent‟s
answer is brief or unclear, the researcher may ask for a clearer or more comprehensive explanation. Probing
implies the verbal prompts made by the interviewer when the respondent must be motivated to communicate
his or her answer more fully. Probing encourages respondents to enlarge on, clarify, or explain answers.
Probing becomes all the more important when the questions don‟t have structured response categories. The
complex question that cannot easily be asked in telephone or mail surveys can be handled by skillful
interviewers.
3. Length of Interview
If the research objective requires an extremely lengthy questionnaire, personal interviews may be the only
alternative. Generally, telephone interviews last fewer than 10 minutes, whereas a personal interview can be
much longer, perhaps more than an hour. A rule of thumb for mail questionnaire is that it should not be more
than six pages.
4. High Completion Rate
The social interaction between a well-trained interviewer and a respondent in personal interview increases the
likelihood that the respondent will answer all items on the questionnaire. The respondent who grows bored
with a telephone interview may terminate the interview at his or her discretion simply by hanging up the phone.
A respondent‟s self administration of a mail questionnaire requires more effort. Rather than writing a long
explanation, the respondent may fail to complete some of the questions on the self administered questionnaire.
This will be an item nonresponse – that is, failure to provide an answer to a question. It is less likely to
happen with an experienced interviewer and in a face to face situation.
5. Props and Visual Aids
Interviewing respondents face to face allows an investigator to show them a new product sample, a sketch of
proposed office, or some other visual aid. The respondents can even taste samples of different products and
can give their evaluations. Such an evaluation cannot be done in telephone interview or mail survey.
6. High Participation Rate
While some people are reluctant to participate in a survey, the presence of an interviewer generally increases
the percentages of people willing to complete the interview. Respondents are not required to do any reading
or writing – all they have to do is to talk. Most people enjoy sharing information and insights with friendly and
sympathetic interviewers. Certainly, in personal interviews there is a higher rate of participation rate of the
respondents compared with mail surveys and telephone interviews.
7. Observation of the Non-Verbal Behavior
In a personal interview, the interviewer can catch the facial expressions, body movements, and, depending
upon the goals of the study, the environment of the respondent. Such observations may supplement the
verbal information.
8. Non-Literates can participate in Study
Since the respondent has neither to read nor to write, therefore, an illiterate or a functionally illiterate person
can also take part in the survey study.
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 44
9. Interviewer can Prescreen Respondent
In order to ensure that the respondent fits the sampling criteria, the interviewer can do some prescreening of
the respondent. In personal interview the interviewer makes it sure that only the relevant respondent provides
the information. In case of mail survey we are not sure who actually filled out the questionnaire, but in personal
interview, the interview may be able to have some control over the environment of the information providers.
In case there are other people around, he may make an excuse from other because he is interested in the
true opinion of the sampled person.
10. CAPI – Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing
With the use of such modern technology the responses of the respondents can be entered into a portable
microcomputer to reduce error and cost.
Disadvantages of Personal Interviewing:
1. High Cost
Personal interviews are generally more expensive than mail, internet, and telephone surveys. The geographic
proximity of respondents, the length of the questionnaire, and the number of people who are non-respondents
because they could not be contacted all influence the cost of the personal interviews. The training of the field
interviewers, supervision, and other logistical support cost may add up the total cost of the study. People
usually estimate the cost of personal interviews is usually 15 times higher than the mail survey
2. Scarcity of Highly Trained Interviewers
In case of a big study (especially a sponsored study) there shall be a need of highly trained interviewers, who
are not easily available. Using unqualified and untrained interviewers are likely to have a negative effect on
the quality of the data and the subsequent generalizations.
3. Lack of Anonymity of Respondent
Because the respondent in a personal interview is not anonymous therefore he/she may be reluctant to provide
confidential information to another person. Though the interviewer provides all the assurance for the
confidentiality of the information (by not asking the name or address) but the mere fact the respondent has
been located, therefore he/she may not trust.
4. Callbacks – a Labor Intensive Work
When the person selected to be in the sample cannot be contacted on the first visit, a systematic procedure
is normally initiated to call back at another time. Callbacks or attempts to re-contact individuals selected for
the sample are the major means to reducing non-response error. It is a labor intensive work and definitely
increases the cost.
5. Interviewer Influence
There is some evidence that the demographic characteristics of the interviewer influence respondents‟
answers. Respondent‟s sex, age, and physical appearance can have an effect on the responses of the
respondent.
6. Interviewer Bias
Interviewer‟s personal likings and dis-likings, the environment, and cultural biases can affect the
understanding of the responses, its recording, and its interpretation.
7. No Opportunity to Consult
The interview may take place anywhere – place of work, in the shopping mall, at home – the respondent may
be unable to consult record, in case he/she has to do so for any specific question.
Less Standardized Wording
Despite the fact that the questions have been printed and have a specified order, these questions are read by
the interviewer. The interviewers intentionally or unintentionally may not be able to use the standardized
wording which may bias the data. Similarly the order of the questions may be altered.
8. Limitations in Respondents’ Availability and Accessibility
Some executive officers or VIPs may not be available or accessible to interviewers. Some of them may not
be willing to talk to strangers for security reasons.
9. Some Neighborhoods are Difficult to Visit
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 45 |
| Just for security reasons some neighborhoods may not allow outsiders to enter the premises. Even the formal generally stop and attempt to question shoppers at a central point within the mall or at the entrance. These |
| Lesson 21 INTERCEPT INTERVIEWS IN MALLS AND OTHER HIGH-TRAFFIC AREAS |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 46
1. High Speed:
The speed of data collection is a major advantage of telephone interviewing. For example, union
officials who wish to survey members‟ attitudes toward a strike may conduct a telephone survey during
the last few days of the bargaining process. Whereas data collection with mail or personal interviews
can take several weeks, hundreds of interviews can be conducted literally overnight. When the
interviewer enters the respondents‟ answers directly into a computerized system, data processing can
be done even faster.
2. Saves Cost: As the cost of personal interviews continues to increase, telephone interviews are
becoming relatively inexpensive. It is estimated the cost of telephone interviewing is less than 25% of
the door to door personal interviews.
3. Callbacks: An unanswered call, a busy signal, or a respondent who is not at home requires a callback.
Telephone callbacks are substantially easier and less expensive than personal interview callbacks.
4. Can Use Computerized Random Digit Dialing
5. Expanded Geographic Area Coverage without Increasing the Cost
6. Uses fewer but highly Skilled Interviewers
7. Reduced Interviewer Bias
8. Better Access to hard-to-reach respondents through repeated callbacks: In some neighborhoods,
people are reluctant to allow stranger to come inside their house, or even stop on the doorstep. The
same people, however, may be preferably willing to cooperate with a telephone survey request.
Likewise, interviewers may be somewhat reluctant to conduct face-to-face interviews in certain
neighborhoods, especially during the evening hours. Telephone interviewing avoids these problems.
9. Use Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI): Responses can be directly entered into
computer file to reduce error and cost.
Weaknesses of Telephone Interviewing
1. Absence of Face-to-Face Contact:
Telephone interviews are more impersonal than face-to-face interviews. Respondents may answer
embarrassing or confidential questions more willingly in a telephone interview than in a personal interview.
People may be more comfortable to answer sensitive and threatening questions through mail surveys.
Absence of face-to-face contact can be a liability. The interviewer and the respondent don‟t see each other
what they are doing (Responding still responding when he/she is thinking and not speaking. Has the
interviewer finished recording the information)?
2. Response Rate is lower than for Personal Interviews:
Some individuals refuse to participate in telephone interviews. Telephone researchers can run into several
roadblocks when trying to obtain executives‟ cooperation at work. Participants find it easier to terminate a
phone interview.
3. Lack of Visual Medium:
Since visual aids cannot be utilized in telephone interview, research that requires visual material cannot be
conducted by phone.
4. Limited Duration:
Length of the interview is limited. Respondents who feel they have spent too much time in the interview will
simply hang up. (A good rule of thumb is to plan telephone interviews to be approximately 10 minutes long).
5. Many Numbers are unlisted or not working
6. Less Participant Involvement:
Telephone surveys can result in less thorough responses, and those interviewed by phone find the experience
to be less rewarding than a personal interview. Participants report less rapport with telephone interviewers
than with personal interviewers.
7.Distracting Physical Environment:
Multiple phones distract the interview situation which may affect the quality of the data.
Self-Administered Questionnaires
The self-administered questionnaire has become ubiquitous in modern living. Service evaluations of hotels,
restaurants, car dealerships, and transportation providers furnish ready examples. Often a short questionnaire
is left to be completed by the participants in a convenient location or is packed with the product. Selfadministered mail questionnaires are delivered not only through postal services, but also via fax and courier
service. Other modalities include computer-delivered and intercept studies.
Mail Questionnaire
A mail survey is a self-administered questionnaire sent to respondents through the mail. This paperand-pencil
method has several advantages and disadvantages.
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 47
Advantages of Mail Questionnaire
1. Geographic Flexibility: Mail questionnaires can reach a geographically dispersed sample simultaneously
and at a relatively low cost because interviewers are not required. Respondents in isolated areas or those
who are otherwise difficult to reach (executives) can be contacted more easily by mail.
2. Sample Accessibility: Researchers can contact participants who may otherwise be inaccessible. Some
people, such as major corporate executives and physicians, are difficult to reach in person or by phone,
as gatekeepers limit access. But the researchers can often access these special participants by mail or
computer.
3. Self-Administered Questionnaires save time: Self-administered questionnaires can be widely
distributed to a large number of employees, so organizational problems may be assessed quickly and
inexpensively. Questionnaires may be administered during group meetings as well as in the class rooms.
The researcher can establish rapport with the respondents, can stay there for any clarifications, and may
also be for any debriefing.
4. Saves Cost: Mail questionnaires are relatively inexpensive compared to personal interviews and
telephone surveys. However, these may not be so cheap. Most include a follow-up mailing, which requires
additional postage and printing of additional questionnaires.
5. Respondent Convenience: Mail surveys and self-administered questionnaires can be filled out whenever
the respondent has time. Thus there is a better chance that respondents will take time to think about their
response. Many hard-to-reach respondents place high value on responding to surveys at their own
convenience and are best contacted by mail. In some situations, particularly in organizational research,
mail questionnaires allow respondents time to collect facts (such as records of absenteeism) that they may
not be able to recall without checking. In the case of household surveys, the respondents may provide
more valid and factual information by checking with family members compared with if they are giving a
personal interview.
6. Anonymity: Mail surveys are typically perceived as more impersonal, providing more anonymity than the
other communication modes, including other methods for distributing self-administered questionnaires.
Absence of interviewer can induce respondents to reveal sensitive or socially undesirable information.
7. Standardized Questions: Mail questionnaires are highly standardized, and the questions are quite
structured.
Disadvantages of Mail Questionnaire
1. Low Response Rate: Mail questionnaire has very low rate of return of the filled questionnaires.
2. Low Completion Rate: There are chances that respondents leave many questions as unanswered, either
because they did not understand the question or they avoid.
3. Increases Cost: The researcher keeps on waiting for the return. When enough response is not there,
then the reminders are sent, and again there is a waiting time. With the reminders copies of the
questionnaires are sent. All this adds to the cost of the study.
4. Interviewer’s Absence: Respondent may have different interpretations of the questions. Due to the
absence of the interviewer, the respondents are unable to get any help for needed clarifications.
5. No Control on Question Order: In a self-administered/mail questionnaire, the respondent usually reads
the whole of the questionnaire prior to answering the questions. The latter questions may influence the
answers to the earlier questions; thereby it is likely to bias the data. In interview the questionnaire remains
in the hands of the interviewer, and the respondent does not know what question is likely to follow.
Therefore, in interview there is a control in the question order.
6. Cannot Use Lengthy Questionnaire: Mail questionnaires vary considerably in length, ranging from
extremely short postcard questionnaires to lengthy, multi-page booklets requiring respondents to fill
thousands of answers. Lengthy questionnaires are usually avoided by the respondents. A general rule of
thumb is that it should not exceed six pages.
7. No Control over the Environment: The researcher does not know about who filled the questionnaire
8. Cannot Catch the Non-Verbal Behavior
9. Non-Literates cannot participate: For participation in the mail/self-administered questionnaire related
studies, the respondents have to be educated up to a certain level. Hence the non-educated people are in a
way excluded from the study.
Increasing Response Rate
Here are some guidelines for increasing the response rate. Response rate is the number of questionnaires
returned or completed, divided by the total number of eligible people who were contacted or asked to
participate in the survey.
Cover Letter: The cover letter that accompanies the questionnaire or is printed on the first page of the
questionnaire is an important means of inducing a reader to complete and return the questionnaire. In the
letter tell why the study is important, who is sponsoring the study, how was the respondent selected, assuring
the anonymity of the respondent could help in establishing rapport and motivating the respondent to respond.A
personalized letter addressed to a specific individual shows the respondent that he or she is important.
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 48 |
| Including an individually typed letter on letterhead versus printed form is an important element in increasing |
| Lesson 22 SELF ADMINISTERED QUESTIONNAIRES (CONTINUED) |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 49
The existing evidence shows that expedited delivery is very effective in increasing response rate. First class
or third class mail, stamped mail or metered mail may make a difference.
Personalization
Personalization of the mailing has no clear-cut advantage in terms of improved response rates. Neither
personal inside addresses nor individually signed cover letters significantly increased response rates;
personally typed cover letters proved to be somewhat effective.
Size, Reproduction, and Color
The size of the paper, the printing, and color may have some effect, though not significant, on the response
rate. It is recommended to use the A-4 size paper and while sending it do not fold it. The attractive printing
may be another factor influencing the return rate. If questionnaire has different parts, the use of different
colors of paper may motivate the respondents to take interest in the study and return the questionnaire.
The manipulation of one or two techniques independently of all others may do little to stimulate response. May
be the researcher has to make use of all the possible techniques simultaneously, so that the response rate
could be increased. Such an effort is referred to as Total Design Effort (TDE).
E-Mail Surveys:
Questionnaires can be distributed via e-mail. E-mail is relatively new method of communication, and many
individuals cannot be reached this way. However, certain projects lend themselves to, such as internal surveys
of employees or satisfaction surveys of retail buyers who regularly deal with an organization via e-mail.
The benefits of an e-mail include speed of distribution, lower distribution and processing cost, faster turnaround
time, more flexibility, and less handling of paper questionnaires.
Many respondents may feel that they can be more candid in e-mail than in person or on telephone, for the
same reason they are candid on other self-administered questionnaires.
In many organizations the employees know that their e-mails are not secure, that “eves-dropping” by a
supervisor could occur. Further maintaining the respondent‟s anonymity is difficult, because a reply to an email message typically includes the sender‟s address. Researchers designing e-mail surveys should assure
respondents that their responses will be confidential.
Not all e-mail systems have the same capacity: some handle color and graphics well; others are limited to text.
The extensive differences in the capabilities of respondents‟ computers and email software limit the types of
questions and the layout of the questionnaire.
Internet Surveys:
An internet survey is a self-administered questionnaire posted on a Web site. Respondents provide answers
to questions displayed on screen by highlighting a phrase, clicking an icon, or keying in an answer.
Like any other survey, Internet surveys have both advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of Internet Surveys
Speed and Cost Effectiveness: Internet survey allow the marketers to reach a large audience (possible a
global one), to personalize the individual messages, and to secure confidential answers quickly and cost
effectively. The computer to computer self-administered questionnaires eliminate the cost of paper, postage,
data entry, and other administrative costs. Once an Internet questionnaire has been developed, the
incremental cost of reaching additional respondents is marginal. Hence samples can be larger than with
interviews or other types of self-administered questionnaires.
Visual Appeal and Interactivity: Surveys conducted on Internet can be interactive. The researcher can use
more sophisticated lines of questioning based on the respondents‟ prior answers. Many of this interactive
survey utilize color, sound, and animation, which may help to increase the respondents‟ cooperation and
willingness to spend more time answering questions. The Internet is an excellent medium for the presentation
of visual materials, such as photographs or drawings of product prototypes, advertisements, and movie
trailers.
Respondent Participation and Cooperation: Participation in some Internet surveys occurs because
computer users intentionally navigate to a particular Web site where questions are displayed. In some
instances individuals expect to encounter a survey at a Web site; in other cases it is totally unexpected.
Accurate Real-Time Data Capture: The computer to computer nature of Internet surveys means that each
respondent‟s answers are entered directly into the researcher‟s computer as soon as the questionnaire is
submitted. In addition, the questionnaire software may be programmed to reject improper data entry.
Real-time data capture allows for real-time data analysis. A researcher can review up-to-the–minute sample
size counts and tabulation data from an Internet survey in real time.
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 50 |
| Callbacks: When the sample for Internet survey is drawn from a consumer panel, it is easy to recontact those |
| Lesson 23 TOOLS FOR DATA COLLECTION |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 51
A survey is only as good as the questions it asks. Questionnaire design is one of the most critical stages in
the survey research process. While common sense and good grammar are important in question writing,
more is required in the art of questionnaire design. To assume that people will understand the questions is
common error. People may not simply know what is being asked. They may be unaware of topic of interest,
they may confuse the subject with something else, or the question may not mean the same thing to every
respondent. Respondents may simply refuse to answer personal questions. Further, properly wording the
questionnaire is crucial, as some problems may be minimized or avoided altogether if a skilled researcher
composes the questions.
A good questionnaire forms an integrated whole. The researcher weaves questions together so they flow
smoothly. He or she includes introductory remarks and instructions for clarification and measures each
variable with one or more survey questions.
What should be asked?
The problem definition will indicate which type of information must be collected to answer the research
question; different types of questions may be better at obtaining certain type of information than others.
1. Questionnaire Relevancy
A questionnaire is relevant if no unnecessary information is collected and if the information that is needed to
solve the problem is obtained.
Asking the wrong or an irrelevant question is a pitfall to be avoided. If the task is to pinpoint compensation
problems, for example, questions asking for general information about morale may be inappropriate. To
ensure information relevancy, the researcher must be specific about data needs, and there should be a
rationale for each item of information.
2. Questionnaire Accuracy
Once the researcher has decided what should be asked, the criterion of accuracy becomes of primary concern.
Accuracy means that the information is reliable and valid. While experienced researchers believe that one
should use simple, understandable, unbiased, unambiguous, and nonirritating words. Obtaining accurate
answer from respondents is strongly influenced by the researcher‟s ability to design a questionnaire that
facilitates recall and that will motivate the respondent to cooperate. Therefore avoid jargon, slang, and
abbreviations. The respondents may not understand some basic terminology. Respondents can probably tell
the interviewer whether they are married, single, divorced, separated, or widowed, but providing their “marital
status” may present a problem. Therefore, asking somebody about his/her marital status while the person may
not understand the meaning of marital status is likely to mess up the information. Words used in the
questionnaire should be readily understandable to all respondents.
3. Avoid Ambiguity, Confusion, and Vagueness.
Ambiguity and vagueness plague most question writers. A researcher might make implicit assumptions
without thinking of respondents‟ perspectives. For example, the question, “what is your income?” could mean
weekly, monthly, or annual: family or personal; before taxes or after taxes; for this year or last year; from salary
or from all sources. The confusion causes inconsistencies in how different respondents assign meaning to
and answer the question.
Another source of ambiguity is the use indefinite words or response categories. Consider the words such as
often, occasionally, usually, regularly, frequently, many, good, fair, and poor. Each of these words has many
meanings. For one person frequent reading of Time magazine may be reading six or seven issues a year; for
another it may be two issues a year. The word fair has great variety of meanings; the same is true for many
indefinite words.
4. Avoid Double-Barreled Questions
Make each question about one and only one. A double barreled question consists of two or more questions
joined together. It makes the respondent‟s answer ambiguous. For example, if asked, “Does this company
have pension and health insurance benefits?” A respondent at the company with health insurance benefits
only might answer either yes or no. The response has an ambiguous meaning and the researcher cannot be
certain of the respondent‟s intentions. When multiple questions are asked in one question, the results may
be exceedingly difficult to interpret.
5. Avoid Leading Questions
Make respondents feel that all responses are legitimate. Do not let them aware of an answer that the
researcher wants. A leading question is the one that leads the respondent to choose one response over
another by its wording. For example, the question, “you don‟t smoke, do you?” leads respondents to state that
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 52 |
| they do not smoke. “Don‟t you think that women should be empowered?” In most the cases the respondent is |
| Lesson 24 PILOT TESTING OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 53
It is important to pilot test the instrument to ensure that the questions are understood by the respondents and
there are no problems with the wording or measurement. Pilot testing involves the use of a small number of
respondents to test the appropriateness of the questions and their comprehension. Usually, the draft
questionnaire is tried out on a group that is selected on a convenience and that is similar in makeup to the one
that ultimately will be sampled. Making a mistake with 25 or so subjects can avert the disaster of administering
an invalid questionnaire to several hundred individuals. Hence the main purpose of pilot testing is to identify
potential problems with the methods, logistics, and the questionnaire.
Administering a questionnaire exactly as planned in the actual study often is not possible. For example,
mailing out a questionnaire might require several weeks. Pre-testing a questionnaire in this manner might
provide important information on response rate, but it may not point out why questions were skipped or why
respondents found certain questions ambiguous or confusing. The ability of personal interviewer to record
requests for additional explanation and to register comments indicating respondent‟s difficulty with question
sequence or other factors is the primary reason why interviewers are often used for pretest work.
What aspects to be evaluated during pilot testing?
1. Reactions of Respondents:
The reactions of the respondents can be looked at from different angles. The researcher may be familiar with
the local culture; still getting the first-hand experience is always useful. Going to the field, contacting the
people, and their reactions to the different aspects of research may be a learning experience.
Availability of study population timing. In case we are doing interviewing then pre-testing might help to
find out the most appropriate time when the respondent shall be available. The researcher can plan the
interviewing accordingly.
Acceptability of the questions asked. An important purpose of pre-testing is to discover participants‟
reaction to the questions. If the participants do not find the experience stimulating when an interviewer is
physically present, how will they react on the phone, or in the self-administered mode? Pre-testing should
help to discover where repetitiveness or redundancy is bothersome or what topics were not covered that the
participant expected. An alert interviewer will look for questions or even sections that the participant perceives
to be sensitive or threatening or topics about which the participant knows nothing. Pre-testing will also provide
the opportunity to see the acceptability of the wording of the questions in the local cultural context. Some of
the issues may be discussed openly while for others people use a disguised language. If people consider the
use of certain phrases as offensive, then it is high time to change the wording.
Willingness of the respondents to co-operate. Field testing of the questionnaire will give the idea about the
level of cooperation the research team is likely to get from the respondents, particularly if they have to interview
them.
2. Discovering errors in the instrument:
Do the tools provide you the information? Reliability. Suitability for analysis. Tabulation of the results
/of a pretest helps determine whether the questionnaire will meet the objectives of the research. A preliminary
analysis often illustrates that although respondents can easily comprehend and answer a given question, it is
an inappropriate question because it does not help solving the issue. The information may not be suitable for
analysis.
Time taken/needed to interview/conduct the observation. Pre-testing can indicate the time taken for
interview or to conduct the observation. Too long questionnaires may not be recommended and, therefore,
need modification. It can also help in estimating average time being taken to collect information form a
respondent. Such an exercise can help in budget estimations.
If there is any need to revise the format of the tool. Question arrangement can play a significant role in
the success of the instrument. May be we should start with stimulating questions and place sensitive questions
last. Such a situation might be handled through pretesting. Therefore, pre-testing may help in putting
questions in proper sequence, using acceptable wording, doing appropriate translation, question spacing,
structuring of answers, coding system, and needing instructions for interviewers (probing).
3. Sampling procedure can be checked:
The extent to which instructions given are followed. Field functionaries are given the instructions for
following a sampling procedure. Depending upon the type of sampling to be followed, the field worker must
follow the guidelines otherwise the quality of the study will be hampered. During the pre-testing one could see
not only the extent to which the instructions are being followed but also locate the problems in carrying out
those instructions. Also what could be the solutions to those problems?
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 54 |
| How much time is needed to locate the respondents? By following the instructions how easy it is to locate |
| Lesson 25 INTERVIEWING |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 55
How to probe?
How to record responses? How to terminate the interview?
The Role of the Interviewer
Survey research interviewing is a specialized kind of interviewing. As with most interviewing, its goal is to
obtain accurate information from another person.
The survey interview is a social relationship. Like other social relationships, it involves social roles, norms,
and expectations. The interview is a short-term, secondary social interaction between two strangers with the
explicit purpose of one person‟s obtaining specific information from the other. The social roles are those of
the interviewer and the interviewee or respondent. Information is obtained in a structured conversation in
which the interviewer asks prearranged questions and records answers, and the respondent answers.
The role of interviewer is difficult. They obtain cooperation and build rapport, yet remain neutral and objective.
They encroach on respondents‟ time and privacy for information that may not benefit the respondents. They
try to reduce embarrassment, fear, and suspicion so that respondents feel comfortable revealing information.
They explain the nature of the survey research or give hints about social roles in an interview. Good
interviewers monitor the pace and direction of the social interaction as well as content of the answers and the
behavior of the respondents.
Survey interviewers are non-judgmental and do not reveal their opinions, verbally or nonverbally. If the
respondent asks for an interviewer‟s opinion, he or she politely redirects the respondent and indicate that such
questions are inappropriate.
Stages of an Interview
Making Initial Contact and Securing the Interview
The interview proceeds through stages, beginning with introduction and entry. Interviewers are trained to
make appropriate opening remarks that will convince the person that his or her cooperation is important.
Asslaam-o-Alaykum, my name is __________________ and I am working for a National Survey Company.
We are conducting a survey concerning “women empowerment.” I would like to get a few of your ideas.
For the initial contact in a telephone interview, the introduction might be:
Asslaam-o-Alaykum, my name is ___________________. I am calling from Department of Social Research,
Virtual University.
By indicating that telephone call is a long distance, interviewers attempt to capitalize on the fact that most
people feel a long distance call is something special, unusual, or important. Giving one‟s personal name
personalizes the call.
Personal interviewers may carry a letter of identification that will indicate that the study is bona-fide research
project and not a salesman‟s call. The name of the research agency is used to assure the respondent that
the caller is trustworthy.
Asking the Questions
The purpose of the interview is, of course, to have the interviewer ask questions and record the respondent‟s
answers. Training in the art of stating questions can be extremely beneficial, because interviewer bias can be
a source of considerable error in survey research.
There are five major principles for asking questions:
1) Ask the questions exactly as they are worded in the questionnaire.
2) Read each question very slowly.
3) Ask the question in the order in which they are presented in the questionnaire.
4) Repeat questions that are misunderstood or misinterpreted.
Although interviewers are generally trained in these procedures, when working in the field many interviewers
do not follow them exactly. Do not take shortcuts when the task becomes monotonous.
Interviewers may shorten questions or rephrase unconsciously when they rely on their memory of the question
rather than reading the question as it is worded.
If the respondents do not understand a question, they will usually ask for some clarification. The recommended
procedure is to repeat the question, or if the respondent does not understand a word, the interviewer should
respond with “just whatever it means to you.
5. Often the respondents volunteer information relevant to a question that is supposed to be asked at a later
point in the research. In this situation the response should be recorded under the question that deals
specifically with that subject. Then rather than skip the question that was answered out of sequence, the
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 56
interviewers should be trained to say something like “We have briefly discussed this, but let me ask you
….” By asking every question, the interviewer can be sure that complete answers are recorded.
Probing
Probing means the verbal prompts made by field worker when the respondent must be motivated to
communicate his or her answer or to enlarge on, clarify or explain an answer. Probing may be needed for two
types of situations. First, it is necessary when the respondent must be motivated to enlarge on, clarify, or
explain his or her answer. The interviewer must encourage the respondent to clarify or expand on answers
by providing a stimulus that will not suggest the interviewer‟s own ideas. The ability to probe with neutral
stimuli is the mark of an experienced interviewer. Second, probing may be necessary in situations in which
the respondent begins to ramble or lose track of the question. In such cases the respondent must be led to
focus on specific content of the interview and to avoid irrelevant and unnecessary information. Probing is also
needed when the interviewer recognizes an irrelevant or inaccurate answer.
He interviewer has several possible probing tactics to choose from, depending on the situation:
Repetition of the question. The respondent who remains completely silent may not have understood the
question or may not have decided how to answer it. Mere repetition may encourage the respondent to answer
in such cases. For example, if the question is “What is there that you do not like about your supervisor?” and
the respondent does not answer, the interviewer may probe: “just to check, is there anything you do not like
about your supervisor?”
An expectant pause. If the interviewer believes the respondent has more to say, the “silent probe,”
accompanied by an expectant look may motivate the respondent to gather his/her thoughts and give a
complete response.
Repetition of the respondent’s reply. As the interviewer records the response, he or she may repeat the
respondent‟s reply verbatim. This may stimulate the respondent to expand on the answer.
Neutral questions or comments. Asking neutral question may indicate the type of information that the
interviewer is seeking. For example, if the interviewer believes that the respondent‟s motives should be
clarified, he or she might ask, “Why do you feel that way?” If the interviewer feels that there is a need to clarify
a word or phrase, then he/she might ask,
“What do you mean by ___________?”
Recording the Responses
The rules for recording responses to closed ended questions vary with the specific question. The general rule,
however, is to place a check in the box that correctly reflects the respondent‟s answer.
The general instructions for recording answers to open-ended response questions is to record the answer
verbatim, a task that is difficult for most people. Some of the suggestions are:
Record responses during the interview.
Use the respondent‟s own words.
Do not summarize or paraphrase the respondent‟s answer.
Include everything that pertains to the question objectives.
Include all your probes.
Terminating the Interview
Fieldworkers should not close the interview before all the information has been secured. The interviewer
whose departure is hasty will not be able to record those spontaneous comments respondents sometimes
offer after all formal questions have been asked. Avoiding hasty departures is also a matter of courtesy.
Fieldworkers should also answer to the best of their ability any questions the respondent has concerning the
nature and purpose of the study. Always leave by observing the local cultural customs.
“Don‟t burn your bridges.” Because the fieldworker may be required to re-interview the respondent at some
future time, he or she should leave the respondent with positive feeling about having cooperated in a
worthwhile undertaking. It is extremely important to thank the respondent for his or her cooperation.
The interviewer then goes to a quiet and private place to edit the questionnaire and record other details such
as the date, time, and place of interview; a thumbnail sketch of the respondent and interview situation, the
respondent‟s attitude; and any unusual circumstances. The interviewer also records personal feelings and
anything that was suspected.
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 57
Principles of Interviewing
The Basics
Have integrity and be honest. This is the cornerstone of all professional inquiry, regardless of its purpose.
Have patience and tact. Interviewers ask for information from people they do not know. Thus all the rules of
human relations that apply to inquiry situations – patience, tact, courtesy – apply “in spades” to interviewing.
Have attention to accuracy and detail. Among the greatest interviewing “sins” are inaccuracy and superficiality,
for the professional analyst can misunderstand, and in turn mislead, a client. Do not record the answer unless
you fully understand it yourself. Probe for clarification and detailed full answers.
Exhibit a real interest in the inquiry at hand, but keep your opinions to yourself. Impartiality is imperative.
Be a good listener. Some interviewers talk too much, wasting time when respondents could be supplying
more pertinent facts or opinions on the topic.
Keep the inquiry and respondents’ responses confidential. Do not discuss the studies you are doing with
relatives, friends, or associates. Never quote one respondent‟s opinion to another.
Respect others’ rights. Survey research depends on the goodwill of others to provide information. There
should be no coercion. Impress on prospective respondents that their cooperation is important and valuable.
Interview Bias
Information obtained during interview should be as free as possible of bias.
Bias could be introduced by the interviewer, interviewee, or the situation. Interviewer bias falls into six
categories:
Interviewer Bias
1) Interviewer could bias the data if proper rapport is not established Errors by the respondent –
forgetting, embarrassment, misunderstanding, or lying because of the presence of others.
2) Unintentional errors or interviewer sloppiness – contacting the wrong person, misreading a question,
omitting questions, reading questions in the wrong order, recording wrong answer, or
misunderstanding the respondent.
3) Intentional subversion by the interviewer – purposeful alteration of answers, omission or rewording of
questions, or choice of an alternative respondent.
4) Influence due to the interviewer‟s expectations about a respondent‟s appearance, living situation, or
other answers.
5) Failure of an interviewer to probe or to probe properly.
6) Influence on the answers due to the interviewer‟s appearance, tone, attitude, reactions to answers, or
comments made outside of the interview schedule.
Interviewee Bias
1) Errors made by the respondent –
2) Interviewees can bias the data when they do not come out with their true opinion but provide
information that they think what the interviewer expects of them or would like to hear.
3) They do not understand the question; they may feel difficult or hesitant to clarify.
4) Some interviewees may be turned off because of the personal liking, or the dress of the interviewer, or
the manner in which questions are put. So they may not provide truthful answers.
5) Some may provide socially undesirable answers.
Situational Bias
1) Situational biases in terms of:
2) Non-participants – Unwillingness or inability to participate. Bias the sample.
3) Trust levels and rapport established by different interviewers. Elicit answers of different degrees of
openness.
4) The physical setting of the interview. Respondent may not feel comfortable to be interviewed at work.
Some Tips for Interviewing
Know the culture of the people in advance.
Appearance – wear acceptable dress.
Pleasantness and flexibility.
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 58 |
| Carry the letter of authority. |
| Lesson 26 SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TERMINOLOGY |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 59
Many research projects, especially those in quality control testing, require the destruction of the items being
tested. If the manufacturer of firecrackers wished to find out whether each product met a specific production
standard, there would be no product left after testing. Similarly, consider the case of electric bulbs. In testing
the life of bulbs, if we were to burn every bulb produced, there would be none left to sell. This is destructive
sampling.
5. Determine the Period of Study
Interviewing every element of a large population without sampling requires lot of time, may be a year or more.
In such a long period study, even the seasonal variation may influence the response pattern of the
respondents. For example, if the study was aimed at measuring the level of unemployment in a given large
city, the unemployment rate produced by the survey data would not refer to the city as of the beginning of
interviewing or as of the end. Researcher may be forced to attribute the unemployment to some hypothetical
date, representing to the midpoint of the study period. Hence it will be difficult to determine the exact timing to
which the data of the study pertains.
Sampling Terminology
There are a number of technical terms used in books on research and statistics which need explanation. Some
of the important terms are:
Element
An element is that unit about which information is collected and which provides the basis of analysis. Typically,
in survey research, elements are people or certain types of people. It is that unit about which information is
collected and that provides the basis of analysis. It can be a person, groups, families, organizations,
corporations, communities, and so forth.
Population
A population is the theoretically specified aggregation of study elements. It is translating the abstract concept
into workable concept. For example, let us look at the study of “college students.” Theoretically who are the
college students? They might include students registered in government colleges and/or private colleges,
students of intermediate classes and/or graduate classes, students of professional colleges and/or nonprofessional colleges, and many other variations. In this way the pool of all available elements is population.
Target Population
Out of the conceptual variations what exactly the researcher wants to focus on. This may also be called a
target population. Target population is the complete group of specific population elements relevant to the
research project. Target population may also be called survey population i.e. that aggregation of elements
from which the survey sample is actually selected.
At the outset of the sampling process, it is vitally important to carefully define the target population so that the
proper source from which the data is to be collected can be identified. In our example of „college students”
finally we may decide to study the college students from government institutions located in Lahore, who are
studying social sciences, who are aged 19 years of age, and hailing from rural areas.
Sampling
Sampling is the process of using a small number of items or parts of a larger population to make conclusions
about the whole population. It enables the researchers to estimate unknown characteristics of the population.
Sampling Frame
In actual practice the sample will be drawn from a list of population elements that is often different from the
target population that has been defined. A sampling frame is the list of elements from which the sample may
be drawn. A simple example could be listing of all college students meeting the criteria of target population
and who are enrolled on the specified date.
A sampling frame is also called the working population because it provides the list that can be worked with
operationally. In our example, such a list could be prepared with help of the staff of the selected colleges.
Sampling Frame Error
A sampling frame error occurs when certain sample elements are excluded or when the entire population is
not accurately represented in the sampling frame. The error that occurs when certain sample elements are
not listed or available and are not represented in the sampling frame.
Sampling Unit
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 60 |
| A sampling unit is that element or set of elements considered for selection in some stage of sampling. |
| Lesson 27 PROBABILITY AND NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 61
time to cut out the questionnaire, and mail it. Some will, and the number who does so may seem large, but
the sample cannot be used to generalize accurately to the population.
Convenience samples are least reliable but normally the cheapest and easiest to conduct. Convenience
sampling is most often used during the exploratory phase of a research project and is perhaps the best way
of getting some basic information quickly and efficiently. Often such sample is taken to test ideas or even to
gain ideas about a subject of interest.
Purposive Sampling
Depending upon the type of topic, the researcher lays down the criteria for the subjects to be included in the
sample. Whoever meets that criteria could be selected in the sample? The researcher might select such cases
or might provide the criteria to somebody else and leave it to his/her judgment for the actual selection of the
subjects. That is why such a sample is also called as judgmental or expert opinion sample. For example a
researcher is interested in studying students who are enrolled in a course on research methods, are highly
regular, are frequent participants in the class discussions, and often come with new ideas. The criteria has
been laid down, the researcher may do this job himself/herself, or may ask the teacher of this class to select
the students by using the said criteria. In the latter situation we are leaving it to the judgment of the teacher to
select the subjects. Similarly we can give some criteria to the fieldworkers and leave it to their judgment to
select the subjects accordingly. In a study of working women the researcher may lay down the criteria like: the
lady is married, has two children, one of her child is school going age, and is living in nuclear family.
Quota Sampling
A sampling procedure that ensures that certain characteristics of a population sample will be represented to
the exact extent that the researcher desires. In this case the researcher first identifies relevant categories of
people (e.g. male and female; or under age 30, ages 30 to 60, over 60, etc.) then decides how many to get in
each category. Thus the number of people in various categories of sample is fixed. For example the researcher
decides to select 5 males and 5 females under age 30, 10 males and 10 females aged 30 to 60, and 5 males
and 5 females over age 60 for a 40 person sample. This is quota sampling.
Once the quota has been fixed then the researcher may use convenience sampling. The convenience
sampling may introduce bias. For example, the field worker might select the individual according to his/her
liking, who can easily be contacted, willing to be interviewed, and belong to middle class.
Quota sampling can be considered as a form of proportionate stratified sampling, in which a predetermined
proportion of people are sampled from different groups, but on a convenience basis.
Speed of data collection, lower costs, and convenience are the major advantages of quota sampling compared
to probability sampling. Quota sampling becomes necessary when a subset of a population is
underrepresented, and may not get any representation if equal opportunity is provided to each. Although there
are many problems with quota sampling, careful supervision of the data collection may provide a
representative sample of the various subgroups within the population.
Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling (also called network, chain referral, or reputational sampling) is a method for identifying
and sampling (or selecting) cases in the network. It is based on an analogy to a snowball, which begins small
but becomes larger as it is rolled on wet snow and picks up additional snow. It begins with one or a few people
or cases and spreads out on the basis of links to the initial cases.
This design has been found quite useful where respondents are difficult to identify and are best located through
referral networks. In the initial stage of snowball sampling, individuals are discovered and may or may not be
selected through probability methods. This group is then used to locate others who possess similar
characteristics and who, in turn, identify others. The “snowball” gather subjects as it rolls along.
For example, a researcher examines friendship networks among teenagers in a community. He or she begins
with three teenagers who do not know each other. Each teen names four close friends. The researcher then
goes to the four friends and asks each to name four close friends, then goes to those four and does the same
thing again, and so forth. Before long, a large number of people are involved. Each person in the sample is
directly or indirectly tied to the original teenagers, and several people may have named the same person. The
researcher eventually stops, either because no new names are given, indicating a closed network, or because
the network is so large that it is at the limit of what he or she can study.
Sequential Sampling
Sequential sampling is similar to purposive sampling with one difference. In purposive sampling, the
researcher tries to find as many relevant cases as possible, until time, financial resources, or his or her energy
is exhausted. The principle is to get every possible case. In sequential sampling, a researcher continues to
gather cases until the amount of new information or diversity is filled. The principle is to gather cases until a
saturation point is reached. In economic terms, information is gathered, or the incremental benefit for additional
cases, levels off or drops significantly. It requires that the researcher continuously evaluates all the collected
cases. For example, a researcher locates and plans in-depth interviews with 60 widows over 70 years old who
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 62 |
| have been living without a spouse for 10 or more years. Depending on the researcher‟s purposes, getting an |
| Lesson 28 TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 63
that each stratum becomes homogeneous group within itself. Then draw the required sample by using the
table of random numbers. Hence in stratified random sampling a sub-sample is drawn utilizing simple random
sampling within each stratum. (Randomization is not done for quota sampling).
There are three reasons why a researcher chooses a stratified random sample: (1) to increase a sample‟s
statistical efficiency, (2) to provide adequate data for analyzing the various subpopulations, and (3) to enable
different research methods and procedures to be used in different strata.
1. Stratification is usually more efficient statistically than simple random sampling and at worst it is equal
to it. With the ideal stratification, each stratum is homogeneous internally and heterogeneous with other
strata. This might occur in a sample that includes members of several distinct ethnic groups. In this
instance, stratification makes a pronounced improvement in statistical efficiency.
2. Stratified random sampling provides the assurance that the sample will accurately reflect the population
on the basis of criterion or criteria used for stratification. This is a concern because occasionally simple
random sampling yields a disproportionate number of one group or another, and the sample ends up
being less representative than it could be.
3. Random sampling error will be reduced with the use of stratified random sampling because each group
is internally homogeneous but there are comparative differences between groups. More technically, a
smaller standard error may result from stratified sampling because the groups are adequately
represented when strata are combined.
4. It is possible when the researcher wants to study the characteristics of a certain population subgroups.
Thus if one wishes to draw some conclusions about activities in different classes of student body,
stratified sampling would be used.
5. Stratified sampling is also called for when different methods of data collection are applied in different
parts of the population. This might occur when we survey company employees at the home office with
one method but mist use a different approach with employees scattered over the country.
Stratification Process
The ideal stratification would be based on the primary variable (the dependent variable) under study. The
criterion is identified as an efficient basis for stratification. The criterion for stratification is that it is a
characteristic of the population elements known to be related to the dependent variable or other variables of
interest. The variable chosen should increase homogeneity within each stratum and increase heterogeneity
between strata.
Next, for each separate subgroup or stratum, a list of population elements must be obtained. Serially number
the elements within each stratum. Using a table of random numbers or some other device, a separate simple
random sample is taken within each stratum. Of course the researcher must determine how large a sample
must be drawn from each stratum
Proportionate versus Disproportionate
If the number of sampling units drawn from each stratum is in proportion to the relative population size of the
stratum, the sample is proportionate stratified sampling. Sometime, however, a disproportionate stratified
sample will be selected to ensure an adequate number of sampling units in every stratum. In a
disproportionate, sample size for each stratum is not allocated in proportion to the population size, but is
dictated by analytical considerations.
Cluster Sampling
The purpose of cluster sampling is to sample economically while retaining the characteristics of a probability
sample. Groups or chunks of elements that, ideally, would have heterogeneity among the members within
each group are chosen for study in cluster sampling. This is in contrast to choosing some elements from the
population as in simple random sampling, or stratifying and then choosing members from the strata, or
choosing every nth case in the population in systematic sampling. When several groups with intra-group
heterogeneity and inter-group homogeneity are found, then a random sampling of the clusters or groups can
ideally be done and information gathered from each of the members in the randomly chosen clusters.
Cluster samples offer more heterogeneity within groups and more homogeneity among and homogeneity
within each group and heterogeneity across groups.
Cluster sampling addresses two problems: researchers lack a good sampling frame for a dispersed population
and the cost to reach a sampled element is very high. A cluster is unit that contains final sampling elements
but can be treated temporarily as a sampling element itself. Researcher first samples clusters, each of which
contains elements, then draws a second sample from within the clusters selected in the first stage of sampling.
In other words, the researcher randomly samples clusters, then randomly samples elements from within the
selected clusters. He or she can create a good sampling frame of clusters, even if it is impossible to create
one for sampling elements. Once the researcher gets a sample of clusters, creating a sampling frame for
elements within each cluster becomes more manageable. A second advantage for geographically dispersed
populations is that elements within each cluster are physically closer to each other. This may produce a
savings in locating or reaching each element.
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 64 If the database is large, there are many advantages to utilizing a computer. Assuming a large database, |
| A researcher draws several samples in stages in cluster sampling. In a three-stage sample, stage 1 is random |
| Lesson 29 DATA ANALYSIS |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 65
such as “no” to automobile ownership but “yes” to an expenditure on automobile insurance, may appear on a
questionnaire. There are many problems like these that must be dealt with before the data can be coded.
Editing procedures are conducted to make the data ready for coding and transfer to data storage.
Editing is the process of checking and adjusting the data for omissions, legibility, and consistency. Editing
may be differentiated from coding, which is the assignment of numerical scales or classifying symbols to
previously edited data.
The purpose of editing is to ensure the completeness, consistency, and readability of the data to be transferred
to data storage. The editor‟s task is to check for errors and omissions on the questionnaires or other data
collection forms.
The editor may have to reconstruct some data. For instance, a respondent may indicate weekly income rather
than monthly income, as requested on the questionnaire. The editor must convert the information to monthly
data without adding any extraneous information. The editor “should bring to light all hidden values and extract
all possible information from a questionnaire, while adding nothing extraneous.”
Field Editing
In large projects, field supervisors are often responsible for conducting preliminary field edits. The purpose of
field editing on the same day by the interview is to catch technical omissions (such as a blank page), check
legibility of the handwriting, and clarify responses that are logically or conceptually inconsistent. If a daily field
editing is conducted, a supervisor who edits completed questionnaires will frequently be able to question the
interviewers, who may be able to recall the interview well enough to correct any problems. The number of “no
answers,” or incomplete answers can be reduced with a rapid follow-up simulated by a field edit. The daily edit
also allows fieldworkers to re-contact the respondent to fill in omissions before the situation has changed. The
field edit may also indicate the need for further training of interviewers.
In-House Editing
Although almost simultaneous editing in the field is highly desirable, in many situations (particularly with mail
questionnaires), early reviewing of the data is not possible. In-house editing rigorously investigates the results
of data collection.
Editing for Consistency:
The in-house editor‟s task is to ensure that inconsistent or contradictory responses are adjusted and that
answers will not be a problem for coders and keyboard punchers. Consider the situation in which a telephone
interviewer has been instructed to interview only registered voters that requires voters to be 18 years old. If
the editor‟s reviews of a questionnaire indicate that the respondent was only 17 years of age, the editor‟s task
is to eliminate this obviously incorrect sampling unit. Thus, in this example, the editor‟s job is to make sure
that the sampling unit is consistent with the objectives of the study.
Editing requires checking for logically consistent responses. The in-house editor must determine if the answers
given by a respondent to one question are consistent with those given to other, related questions. Many
surveys utilize filter questions or skip questions that direct the sequence of questions, depending upon
respondent‟s answer. In some cases the respondent will have answered a sequence of questions that should
not have been asked. The editor should adjust these answers, usually to “no answer‟ or “inapplicable,” so that
the responses will be consistent.
Editing for Completeness:
In some cases the respondent may have answered only the second portion of a two-part question. An inhouse editor may have to adjust the answers to the following question for completeness. For example:
Does your organization have more than one Internet Web site? Yes ____ No _____
If a respondent checked neither “yes” nor “No”, but indicated three Internet Web sites, the editor may check
the “yes” to ensure that this answer is not missing from the questionnaire.
Item Non-response:
It is a technical term for an unanswered question on an otherwise complete questionnaire. Specific decision
rules for handling this problem should be meticulously outlined in the editorial instructions. In many situations
the decision rule will be to do nothing with the unanswered question: the editor merely indicates in item nonresponse by writing a message instructing the coder to record a “missing value” or blank as the response.
However, in case the response is necessary then the editor uses the plug value. The decision rule may to
“plug in” an average or neutral value in each case of missing data. A blank response in an interval scale item
with a mid-point would be to assign the mid-point in the scale as the response to that particular item. Another
way is to assign to the item the mean value of the responses of all those who have responded to that particular
item. Another choice is to give the item the mean of the responses of this particular respondent to all other
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 66
questions measuring the variables. Another decision rule may be to alternate the choice of the response
categories used as plug values (e.g. “yes” the first time, “no” the second time, “yes” the third time, and so on).
The editor must also decide whether or not an entire questionnaire is “usable.” When a questionnaire has too
many (say 25%) answers missing, it may not be suitable for the planned data analysis. In such a situation the
editor simply records the fact that a particular incomplete questionnaire has been dropped from the sample.
Editing Questions Answered out of Order: Another situation an editor may face is the need to rearrange
the answers to an open-ended response to a question. For example, a respondent may have provided the
answer to a subsequent question in his answer to an earlier open-ended response question. Because the
respondent had already clearly identified his answer, the interviewer may have avoided asking the subsequent
question. The interviewer may have wanted to avoid hearing “I have already answered that earlier” and to
maintain rapport with the respondent and therefore skipped the question. To make the response appear in the
same order as on other questionnaires, the editor may remove the out-of-order answer to the section related
to the skipped question.
Coding
Coding involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers so the responses can be grouped into limited
number of classes or categories. The classifying of data into limited categories sacrifices some data detail but
is necessary for efficient analysis. Nevertheless, it is recommended that try to keep the data in raw form so far
it is possible. When the data have been entered into the computer you can always ask the computer to group
and regroup the categories. In case the data have been entered in the compute in grouped form, it will not be
possible to disaggregate it.
Although codes are generally considered to be numerical symbols, they are more broadly defined as the rules
for interpreting, classifying, and recording data. Codes allow data to be processed in a computer. Researchers
organize data into fields, records, and files. A field is a collection of characters (a character is a single number,
letter of the alphabet, or special symbol such as the question mark) that represent a single type of data. A
record is collection of related fields. A file is a collection of related records. File, records, and fields are stored
on magnetic tapes, floppy disks, or hard drives.
Researchers use a coding procedure and codebook. A coding procedure is a set of rules stating that certain
numbers are assigned to variable attributes. For example, a researchers codes males as 1 and females as 2.
Each category of variable and missing information needs a code. A codebook is a document (i.e. one or more
pages) describing the coding procedure and the location of data for variables in a format that computers can
use.
When you code data, it is very important to create a well-organized, detailed codebook and make multiple
copies of it. If you do not write down the details of the coding procedure, or if you misplace the codebook, you
have lost the key to the data and may have to recode the data again.
Researchers begin thinking about a coding procedure and a codebook before they collect data. For example
a survey researcher pre-codes a questionnaire before collecting the data. Pre-coding means placing the code
categories (e.g. 1 for male, 2 for female) on the questionnaire. Sometimes to reduce dependence on
codebooks, researchers also place the location in the computer format on the questionnaire.
If the researcher does not pre-code, his or her first step after collecting and editing of data is to create a
codebook. He or she also gives each case an identification number to keep track of the cases. Next, the
researcher transfers the information from each questionnaire into a format that computers can read.
Code Construction
When the question has a fixed-alternative (closed ended) format, the number of categories requiring codes is
determined during the questionnaire design stage. The codes 8 and 9 are conventionally given to “don‟t know”
(DK) and “no answer” (NA) respectively. However, many computer program fields recognize a blank field or a
certain character symbol, such as a period (.), as indicating a missing value (no answer).
There are two basic rules for code construction. First, the coding categories should be exhaustive – that is,
coding categories should be provided for all subjects or objects or responses. With a categorical variable such
as sex, making categories exhaustive is not a problem. However, when the response represents a small
number of subjects or when the responses might be categorized in a class not typically found, there may be
a problem.
Second, the coding categories should also be mutually exclusive and independent. This means that there
should be no overlap between the categories, to ensure that a subject or response can be placed in only one
category. This frequently requires that an “other” code category be included, so that the categories are all
inclusive and mutually exclusive. For example, managerial span of control might be coded 1, 2, 3, 4, and “5
or more.” The “5 or more” category ensures everyone a place in a category. When a questionnaire is highly
structured, pre-coding of the categories typically occurs before the data are collected. In many cases, such as
when researchers are using open-ended response questions, a framework for classifying responses to
questions cannot be established before data collection. This situation requires some careful thought
concerning the determination of categories after editing process has been completed. This is called post
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 67 |
| coding or simply coding. The purpose of coding open-ended response questions is to reduce the large |
| Lesson 30 DATA TRANSFROMATION |
Q/V No. Field/ col. No. Code values
-- 1-5 Study number
- 6 City
7 -9 Interview No.
Sex 10 1 = Male
Age 11-12 Actual
Education 13 1 = Non literate
2 = Literate
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 68
This calculation can be accomplished by using simple arithmetic or by programming a computer with a data
transformation equation that creates the new variable “summative score.”
The researchers have created numerous different scales and indexes to measure social phenomenon. For
example scales and indexes have been developed to measure the degree of formalization in bureaucratic
organization, the prestige of occupations, the adjustment of people in marriage, the intensity of group
interaction, the level of social activity in a community, and the level of socioeconomic development of a nation.
Keep it in mind that every social phenomenon can be measured. Some constructs can be measured directly
and produce precise numerical values (e.g. family income). Other constructs require the use of surrogates or
proxies that indirectly measure a variable (e.g. job satisfaction). Second, a lot can be learned from measures
used by other researchers. We are fortunate to have the work of thousands of researchers to draw on. It is
not always necessary to start from a scratch. We can use a past scale or index, or we can modify it for our
own purposes. The process of creating measures for a construct evolves over time. Measurement is an
ongoing process with constant change; new concepts are developed, theoretical definitions are refined, and
scales or indexes that measure old or new constructs are improved.
Indexes and Scales
Scales and indexes are often used interchangeably. One researcher‟s scale is another‟s index. Both produce
ordinal- or interval- level measures of variable. To add to the confusion, scale and index techniques can be
combined in one measure. Scales and indexes give a researcher more information about variables and make
it possible to assess the quality of measurement. Scales and indexes increase reliability and validity, and they
aid in data reduction; that is condense and simplify the information that is collected.
A scale is a measure in which the researcher captures the intensity, direction, level, or potency of a variable
construct. It arranges responses or observation on a continuum. A scale can use single indicator or multiple
indicators. Most are at the ordinal level of measurement.
An index is a measure in which a researcher adds or combines several distinct indicators of a construct into
a single score. This composite score is often a simple sum of multiple indicators. It is used for content or
convergent validity. Indexes are often measured at the interval or ratio level.
Researchers sometimes combine the features of scales and indexes in a single measure. This is common
when a researcher has several indicators that are scales. He or she then adds these indicators together to
yield a single score, thereby an index.
Unidimensionality: It means that all the items in a scale or index fit together, or measure a single construct.
Unidimensionality says: If you combine several specific pieces of information into a single score or measure,
have all the pieces measure the same thing (each sub dimension is part of the construct‟s overall content).
For example, we define the construct “feminist ideology” as a general ideology about gender. Feminist ideology
is a highly abstract and general construct. It includes a specific beliefs and attitudes towards social, economic,
political, family, sexual relations. The ideology‟s five belief areas parts of a single general construct. The parts
are mutually reinforcing and together form a system of beliefs about dignity, strength, and power of women.
Index Construction
You may have heard about a consumer price index (CPI). The CPI, which is a measure of inflation, is created
by totaling the cost of buying a list of goods and services (e.g. food, rent, and utilities) and comparing the total
to the cost of buying the same list in the previous year. An index is combination of items into a single numerical
score. Various components or subgroups of a construct are each measured, and then combined into one
measure.
There are many types of indexes. For example, if you take an exam with 25 questions, the total number of
questions correct is a kind of index. It is a composite measure in which each question measures a small piece
of knowledge, and all the questions scored correct or incorrect are totaled to produce a single measure.
One way to demonstrate that indexes are not a very complicated is to use one. Answer yes or no to the seven
questions that follow on the characteristics of an occupation. Base your answers on your thoughts regarding
the following four occupations: long-distance truck driver, medical doctor, accountant, telephone operator.
Score each answer 1 for yes and 0 for no.
1. Does it pay good salary?
2. Is the job secure from layoffs or unemployment?
3. Is the work interesting and challenging?
4. Are its working conditions (e.g. hours, safety, time on the road) good?
5. Are there opportunities for career advancement and promotion?
6. Is it prestigious or looked up to by others?
7. Does it permit self-direction and the freedom to make decisions?
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 69 |
| Total the seven answers for each of the four occupations. Which had the highest and which had the lowest |
| Lesson 31 DATA PRESENTATION |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 70
Results with one variable
Frequency Distribution
Several useful techniques for displaying data are in use. The easiest way to describe the numerical data of
one variable is with a frequency distribution. It can be used with nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio-level data
and takes many forms. For example we have data of 400 students. We can summarize the data on the gender
of the students at a glance with raw count or a frequency distribution
Table 1: Frequency distribution of students
Gender Frequency Percent
Male 300 75
Female 100 25
Total 400 100
We can present the same information in a graphic form. Some common types of graphic presentations are
the histograms, bar chart, and pie chart. Bar charts or graphs are used for discrete variables. They can have
vertical or horizontal orientation with small space between the bars. The terminology is not exact, but
histograms are usually upright bar graphs for interval or ratio data.
Presentation of data in these forms lays emphasis on visual representation and graphical techniques over
summary statistics. Summary statistics may obscure, conceal, or even misrepresent the underlying structure
of the data. Therefore it is suggested that data analysis should begin with visual inspection.
The presented data has to be interpreted. The purpose of interpretation is to explain the meaning of data so
that we can make inferences and formulate conclusions. Therefore, interpretation refers to making inferences
pertinent to the meaning and implications of the research investigation and drawing conclusions. In order for
interpretation, the data have to be meaningfully analyzed. For purposes of analysis the researchers use
statistics.
The word statistics has several meanings. It can mean a set of collected numbers (e.g. numbers telling how
many people living in a city) as well as a branch of applied mathematics used to manipulate and summarize
the features of numbers. Social researchers use both types of statistics. Here, we focus on the second type –
ways to manipulate and summarize numbers that represent data from research project.
Descriptive statistics describe numerical data. They can be categorized by the number of variables involved:
univariate, bivariate, or multivariate (for one, two, and three or more variables). Univariate statistics describe
one variable.
Researchers often want to summarize the information about one variable into a single number. They use three
measures of central tendency, or measures of the center of the frequency distribution: mean, median and
mode, which are often called averages (a less precise and less clear way to say the same thing). The mode
is simply the most common or frequently occurring number. The median is the middle point. The mean also
called the arithmetic average, is the most widely used measure of central tendency. A particular central
tendency is used depending upon the nature of the data.
Bivariate Tables
The bivariate contingency table is widely used. The table is based on cross-tabulation (crossclassification);
that is the cases are organized in the table on the basis of two variables at the same time.
A contingency table is formed by cross-tabulating the two or more variables. It is contingent because the cases
in each category of a variable get distributed into each category of a second variable. The table distributes
cases into categories of multiple variables at the same time and shows how the cases, by the category of one
variable, are “contingent upon” the categories of the other variables.
Constructing Percentage Tables
It is to construct a percentage table, but there are ways to make it look professional. Let us take two variables
like the age of the respondents and their attitude towards “women empowerment.” Assuming that age affects
the attitude towards women empowerment let us hypothesize: the lower the age, the higher the favorable
attitude towards “women empowerment.” The age range of the respondents is 25 to 70, and the attitude index
has three categories of “highly favorable,” “medium favorable,” and “low favorable.” The age variable has so
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 71 |
| many categories that making a table with that number becomes unwieldy and meaningless. Therefore, we |
| Lesson 32 THE PARTS OF THE TABLE |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 72
Is it best to percentage by row or column? Either could be appropriate. A researcher‟s hypothesis may imply
looking at row percentages or the column percentages. Here, the hypothesis is that age affects attitude, so
column percentages are most helpful. Whenever one factor in a cross-tabulation can be considered the cause
of the other, percentage will be most illuminating if they are computed in the direction of the causal factor.
Reading a percentage Table: Once we understand how table is made, reading it and figuring out what it
says are much easier. To read a table, first look at the title, the variable labels, and any background
information. Next, look at the direction in which percentages have been computed – in rows or columns.
Researchers read percentaged tables to make comparisons. Comparisons are made in the opposite direction
from that in which percentages are computed. A rule of thumb is to compare across rows if the table is
percentaged down (i.e. by column) and to compare up and down in columns if the table is percentaged across
(i.e. by row).
It takes practice to see a relationship in a perentaged table. If there is no relationship in a table, the cell
percentages look approximately equal across rows or columns. A linear relationship looks like larger
percentages in the diagonal cells. If there is curvilinear relationship, the largest percentages form a pattern
across cells. For example, the largest cells might be the upper right, the bottom middle, and the upper left. It
is easiest to see a relationship in a moderate-sized table (9 to 16 cells) where most cells have some cases (at
least five cases are recommended) and the relationship is strong and precise.
Linear relationship
Table 4: Age by attitude towards women
. empowerment . Age (in years) .
Level of under 40 40 –60 61 + Total attitude F. % F. % F % F %
| Hi Favorable | 600 60 300 30 200 20 1100 37 |
| Med. Favorable 300 30 500 50 250 25 | 1050 28 |
| Total | 1000 100 1000 100 1000 100 3000 100 |
Larger percentages in the diagonal cells
Linear
Positive relationship
Linear
Negative relationship
X
Y X
Y
Curvilinear
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 73
A simple way to see strong relationships is to circle the largest percentage in each row (in row percentaged
tables) or columns (for column-percentaged tables) and see if a line appears.
A simple way to see strong relationship is to circle the largest
percentage in applicable row or column and see if a line appears
• Table 4: Age by attitude towards women
. empowerment . Age (in years) .
Level of under 40 40 –60 61 + Total attitude F. % F. % F % F %
| Hi Favorable | 600 60 300 30 200 20 1100 | 60 | 37 Med. Favorable 300 30 |
| 500 250 25 50 | 1050 35 | ||
| Lo Favorable 100 10 200 20 500 | 50 850 28 | ||
| Total | 1000 100 1000 100 1000 100 3000 100 |
The circle-the-largest-cell rule works – with one important caveat. The categories in the percentages table
must be ordinal or interval. The lowest variable categories begin at the bottom left. If the categories in a table
are not ordered the same way, the rule does not work.
Statistical Control
Showing an association or relationship between two variables is not sufficient to say that an independent
variable causes a dependent variable. In addition to temporal order and association, a researcher must
eliminate alternative explanations – explanations that can make the hypothetical relationship spurious.
Experimental researchers do this by choosing a research design that physically controls potential alternative
explanations for results (i.e. that threaten internal validity).
In non-experimental research, a researcher controls for alternative explanations with statistics. He or she
measures possible alternative explanations with control variables, and then examines the control variables
with multivariate tables and statistics that help him or her to decide whether a bivariate relationship is spurious.
They also show the relative size of the effect of multiple independent variables on dependent variable.
A researcher controls for alternative explanation in multivariate (more than two variables) analysis by
introducing a third (sometimes fourth or fifth) variable. For example, a bivariate table shows that young people
show more favorable attitude towards women empowerment. But the relationship between age and attitude
towards women empowerment may be spurious because men and women may have different attitudes. To
test whether the relationship is actually due to gender, a researcher must control for gender; in other words,
effects of gender are statistically removed. Once this is done, a researcher can see whether the bivariate
relationship between age and attitude towards women empowerment remains.
A researcher controls for a third variable by seeing whether the bivariate relationship persists within categories
of the control variable. For example controls for gender, and the relationship between age and attitude persists.
This means that both male and females show negative association between age and attitude toward women
empowerment. In other words, the control variable has no effect. When this is so, the bivariate relationship is
not spurious.
If the bivariate relationship weakens or disappears after the control variable is considered, it means that the
age is not real factor that makes the difference in attitude towards women empowerment, rather it is the gender
of the respondents.
Statistical control is a key idea in advanced statistical techniques. A measure of association like the correlation
co-efficient only suggests a relationship. Until a researcher considers control variables, the bivariate
relationship could be spurious. Researchers are cautious in interpreting bivariate relationships until they have
considered control variables.
After they introduce control variables, researchers talk about the net effect of an independent variable – the
effect of independent variable “net of,” or in spite of, the control variable. There are two ways to introduce
control variables: trivariate percentaged tables and multiple regression analysis.
Constructing Trivariate Tables
In order to meet all the conditions needed for causality, researchers want to “control for” or see whether an
alternative explanation explains away a causal relationship. If an alternative explanation explains a
relationship, then bivariate relationship is spurious. Alternative explanations are operationalized as a third
variable, which are called control variables because they control for alternative explanation.
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 74
One way to take such third variables into consideration and see whether they influence the bivariate
relationship is to statistically introduce control variables using trivariate or three variable tables. Trivariate
tables differ slightly from bivariate tables; they consist of multiple bivariate tables.
A trivariate table has a bivariate table of the independent and dependent variable for each category of the
control variable. These new tables are called partials. The number of partials depends on the number of
categories in control variable. Partial tables look like bivariate tables, but they use a subset of the cases. Only
cases with a specific value on the control variable are in the partial. Thus it is possible to break apart a bivariate
table to form partials, or combine the partials to restore the initial bivariate table.
Trivariate tables have three limitations. First, they are difficult to interpret if a control variable has more that
four categories. Second, control variables can be at any level of measurement, but interval or ratio control
variables must be grouped (i.e. converted to an ordinal level), and how cases are grouped can affect the
interpretation of effects. Finally, the total number of cases is a limiting factor because the cases are divided
among cells in partials. The number of cells in the partials equals the number of cells in the bivariate
relationship multiplied by the number of categories in the control variables. For example if the control variable
has three categories, and a bivariate table has 12 cells, the partials have 3 X 12 = 36 cells. An average of five
cases per cell is recommended, so the researcher will need 5 X 36 = 180 cases at minimum.
Like a bivariate table construction, a trivariate table begins with a compound frequency distribution (CFD), but
it is a three-way instead of two-way CFD. An example of a trivariate table with “gender” as control variable for
the bivariate table is shown here:
Partial table for males
. .
• . Age (in years) .
• Level of . Under 40 40—60 61+ Total .
• Attitude F % F % F. % F. %.
• High 300 60 200 33 30 6 530 33
• Medium 140 28 270 45 120 24 530 33
• Low 60 12 130 22 350 70 540 34
• Total 500 100 600 100 500 100 1600 100
Partial table for females
. .
• . Age (in years) .
• Level of .Under 40 40—60 61+ Total .
• Attitude F % F % F. % F. % .
• High 350 70 200 50 20 4 570 41
• Medium 150 30 150 38 220 44 520 37
• Low - - 50 12 260 52 310 22
• Total 500 100 400 100 500 100 1400 100
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 75 |
| The replication pattern is the easiest to understand. It is when the partials replicate or reproduce the same |
| Lesson 33 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 76
cause-and-effect relationships, establishing them is not so easy, because several other variables that co-vary
with the dependent variable have to be controlled. It is not always possible to control all the covariates while
manipulating the causal factor (the independent variable that is causing the dependent variable) in
organizational settings, where events flow or occur naturally and normally. It is, however, possible to first
isolate the effects of a variable in a tightly controlled artificial setting (the lab setting), and after testing and
establishing the cause-and-effect relationship under these tightly controlled conditions, see how generalizable
such relationships are to the field setting.
The Language of Experiments
Experimental research has its own language or set of terms and concepts. One important term frequently used
is subjects or test units. In experimental research, the cases or people used in research projects and on whom
variables are measured are called the subjects or test units. In other words these are those entities whose
responses to the experimental treatment are measured or observed. Individuals, organizational units, sales
territories, or other entities may be the test units. Similar terminology is used on different component parts of
the experiments.
Parts of Experiments:
We can divide the experiments into seven parts and for each part there is a term. Not all experiments have
all these parts, and some have all seven parts plus others. The following seven usually make up a true
experiment.
1. Treatment or independent variable.
2. Dependent variable.
3. Pretest.
4. Posttest.
5. Experimental group.
6. Control group.
7. Assignment of subjects.
Treatment or independent variable:
The experimenter has some degree of control over the independent variable. The variable is independent
because its value can be manipulated by the experimenter to whatever he or she wishes it to be. In
experimental design the variable that can be manipulated to be whatever the experiment wishes. Its value
may be changed or altered independently of any other variable.
In most experiments, a researcher creates a situation or enters into an ongoing situation, then modifies it. The
treatment (or the stimulus or manipulation) is what the researcher modifies. The term comes from medicine,
in which a physician administers a treatment to patients; the physician intervenes in a physical or psychological
condition to change it. It is the independent variable or the combination of independent variables.
In experiments, for example, the researcher creates a condition or situation. Look at “the degree of fear or
anxiety”; the levels are high-fear or low-fear situation. Instead of asking the subjects, as we do in surveys,
whether they are fearful, experimenter puts the subjects into either in a high-fear or lowfear situation. They
measure the independent variable by manipulating conditions so that some subjects feel a lot of fear and
others feel little.
Researchers go to great lengths to create treatments. They want the treatment to have an impact and produce
specific reactions, feelings, or behaviors.
It also possible the researchers look at the alternative manipulations of the independent variable being
investigated. In business research, the independent variable is often categorical or classificatory variable,
representing some classifiable or qualitative aspects of management strategy. To determine the effects of
training, for example, the experimental treatment that represents the independent variable is the training
program itself.
Dependent Variable:
Dependent variable is the criterion or standard by which the results are judged. It is assumed that the changes
in the dependent variable are consequence of changes in the independent variable. For example, measures
of turnover, absenteeism, or morale might be alternative choices for the dependent variable, depending on
the purpose of the training.
The outcomes in the experimental research are the physical conditions, social behaviors, attitudes, feelings,
or beliefs of subjects that change, in response to treatment. Dependent variables can be measured by paperand-pencil indicators, observations, interviews, or physiological responses (e.g. heartbeat, or sweating palms).
Selection of dependent variable is crucial decision in the design of an experiment.
Pretests and Posttests:
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 77
Frequently a researcher measures the dependent variable more than once during an experiment. The pretest
is the measurement of the dependent variable prior to the introduction of the treatment. The posttest is the
measurement of the dependent variable after the treatment has been introduced into the experimental
situation.
Experimental and Control Groups:
Experimental researchers often divide subjects into two or more groups for purposes of compassion. A simple
experiment has only two groups, only one of which receives the treatment. The experimental group is the
group that receives the treatment or in which the treatment is present. The group that does not receive the
treatment is called the “control group.” When the independent variable takes on many different values, more
than one experimental group is used.
In the simplest type of experiment, only two values of the independent variable are manipulated. For example,
consider measuring the influence of a change in work situation, such as playing music over an intercom during
working hours, on employee productivity. In the experimental condition (the treatment administered to the
experimental group), music is played during working hours. In the control condition (the treatment
administered to the control group), the work situation remains the same, without change. By holding
conditions constant in the control group, the researcher controls for potential sources of error in the
experiment. Productivity, (the dependent variable) in the two groups is compared at the end of the experiment
to determine whether playing the music (the independent variable) has any effect.
Several experimental treatment levels can also be used. The music/productivity experiment, with one
experimental and one control group, may not tell the researcher everything he or she wishes to know about
the music/productivity relationship. If the researcher wished to understand the functional nature of the
relationship between music and productivity at several treatment levels, additional experimental groups with
music played for only 2 hours, only for 4 hours, and only for 6 hours might be studied. This type of design
would allow the experimenter to get a better idea about the impact of music on productivity.
Assignment of Subjects/Test Units:
Social researchers frequently want to compare. When making comparisons, the researchers want to compare
the cases that do not differ with regard to variables that offer alternative explanations. Therefore the groups
should be similar in characteristics in such a way that the change in the dependent variable is presumably the
outcome of the manipulation of the independent variable, having no alternative explanations.
Random assignment (Randomization) is a method for assigning the cases (e.g. individuals, organizations)
to groups for the purpose of making comparisons. It is a way to divide or sort a collection of cases into two or
more groups in order to increase one‟s confidence that the groups do not differ in a systematic way. It is a
mechanical method; the assignment is automatic, and the researcher cannot make assignments on the basis
of personal preference or the features of specific cases.
Random assignment is random in statistical/mathematical sense, not in everyday sense. In everyday speech,
random means unplanned, haphazard, or accidental, but it has a special meaning in mathematics. In
probability theory, random describes a process in which each case has a known chance of being selected.
Random selection allows the researcher calculate the odds that a specific case will be sorted into one group
or the other. A random process is the one in which all cases have an exactly equal chance of ending up in one
or the other group.
Random assignment or randomization is unbiased because a researcher‟s desire to confirm a hypothesis or
a research subject‟s personal interests does not enter into the selection process. It also assures the
researcher that repetitions of an experiment – under the controlled conditions – will show true effects, if they
exist. Random assignment of subjects allows the researcher to assume that the groups are identical with
respect to all variables except for experimental treatment.
Random assignment of subjects to the various experimental groups is the most common technique used to
prevent test units from differing from each other on key variables; it assumes that all the characteristics of
these subjects have been similarly randomized. If the experimenter believes that certain extraneous variable
may affect the dependent variable, he or she may make sure that the subjects in each group are matched on
these characteristics.
Matching the subjects on the basis of pertinent background information is another technique for controlling
assignment errors.
Matching presents a problem: What are the relevant characteristics to match on, and can one locate exact
matches? Individual cases differ in thousands of ways, and the researcher cannot know which might be
relevant.
Three Types of Controls
1. Manipulation of the Independent Variable: In order to examine the causal effects of an independent
variable on a dependent variable, certain manipulations need to be tried. Manipulation simply means
control over the stimulus that is we create different levels of the independent variable to assess the impact
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 78
on the dependent variable. Let us say we want to test the effects of lighting on worker production levels
among sewing machine operators. To establish cause and effect relationship, we must measure the
production levels of all the operators over a 15 day period with the usual amount of light they work with –
say 60 watt bulbs. We might then want to split the group of 60 operators into three groups of 20 members
each, and while allowing the subgroup to continue to work under the same conditions as before (60-watt
electric light bulbs). We might want to manipulate the intensity of the light for the other two subgroups, by
making one group work with 75 watt and the other with 100 watt light bulbs. After the different groups
have worked with these varying degrees of light exposure for15 days, each group‟s total production for
these 15 days may be analyzed to see the difference between the pre-experimental and the post
experimental productions among the groups is directly related to the intensity of the light to which they
have been exposed. If our hypothesis that better lighting increases the production levels is correct, the
subgroups that did not have any change in the lighting (control group), should have no increase in
production and the other two groups should show increases, with the one having the most light (100 watts)
showing greater increases than those who had the 75 watt lighting.
In this case the independent variable, lighting, has been manipulated by exposing different groups to different
degrees of changes in it. This manipulation of the independent variable is also known treatment, and the
results of the treatment are called treatment effects.
2. Holding Conditions Constant: When we postulate cause-and-effect relationships between two variables
X and Y, it is possible that some other factor, say A, might also influence the dependent variable Y. In
such a case, it will not be possible to determine the extent to which
Y occurred only because of X, since we do not know how much of the total variation was
caused by the presence of the other factor A. If the true effect of the X is to be assessed, then the effect of A
has to be controlled. This is also called as controlling the effect of contaminating factors or confounding factors.
3. Control over the Composition of Groups: If the experimental and control groups have such
characteristics that could contaminate the results then the researcher may have to take note of such
factors, if there are any. The group differences should not confound the effect of X variable that happens
to be under study. The experimental and control groups need to be balanced. For this purpose the
researcher may use random selection of the subjects and allocating to different groups. Finally the
experimental and control groups should also be selected randomly. Another way to have identical groups
is by following the procedure of matching. One could look at the possible characteristics of the subjects
that could contaminate the effect of X variable, and try to distribute these evenly in all the groups. So pick
up one subject and try to match it with another subject on the specified characteristics (age, gender,
education, marital status) and put one subject in one group and the other in the other group. After the
formation of groups, the researcher may randomly decide about experimental and control groups.
Random Assignment
Social researchers frequently want to compare. For example, a researcher has two groups of 15 students and
wants to compare the groups on the basis of key differences between them (e.g. a course that one group
completed). Or a researcher has five groups of customers and wants to compare the groups on the basis of
one characteristic (e.g. geographic location). “Compare apples with apples, don‟t compare apples with
oranges.” It means that a valid comparison depends on comparing things that are fundamentally alike.
Random assignment facilitates comparison in experiments by creating similar groups.
Random assignment is a method for assignment cases (e.g. individuals, organizations) to groups for the
purpose of making comparisons. It is a way to divide or sort a collection of cases into two or more groups in
order to increase one‟s confidence that the groups do not differ in a systematic way. It is mechanical method;
the assignment is automatic, and the researcher cannot make assignments on the basis of personal
preference or the features of specific cases.
Random assignment is random in a statistical or mathematical sense, not in an everyday sense. In everyday
speech, random means unplanned, haphazard, or accidental, but it has a specialized meaning in mathematics.
In probability theory, random describes a process in which each case has a known chance of being selected.
Random assignment lets a researcher calculate the odds that a specific case will be sorted into one group
over another.
Random assignment or randomization is unbiased because a researcher‟s desire to confirm a hypothesis or
a research subject‟s personal interest does not enter into selection process.
Matching
It implies to match the characteristics (such as age, sex) of the cases in each group. Matching is an alternative
to random assignment, but it is an infrequently used one.
Matching presents a problem: What are the relevant characteristics to match on, and can one locate exact
matches. Individual cases differ in thousands of ways, and the researcher cannot know which might be
relevant. Therefore, randomization is preferred over matching. It takes care of the contaminating factors.
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 79 |
| Lesson 34 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (Cont.) |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 80
Experimental designs, which have at least two groups, a random assignment of subjects to experimental and
control groups, only experimental group is exposed to treatment, both groups record information before and
after the treatment, are known as ex-post facto experimental designs.
Pretest and Posttest Experimental and Control Group Design:
Two groups, one control group and the other experimental group, are formed randomly. Both the groups are
exposed to pretest and posttest. The experimental group is exposed to treatment while the control group is
not. Measuring the difference between the differences in the post- and pretests of the two groups would give
the net effects of the treatment.
| Experimental Group: Pretest (O1) | X | Posttest (O2) |
| Control Group: Pretest (O3) | - | Posttest (O4) Randomization used for setting up the group. |
[(O2 – O1) – (O4 – O3)] = Treatment effect (could be anywhere between 0 to -1 or +1).
Solomon’s Four Group Design:
To gain more confidence in internal validity in experimental designs, it is advisable to set up two experimental
groups and two control groups. One experimental group and one control group can be given the both pretest
and the posttest. The other two groups will be given only the posttest. Here the effects of treatment can be
calculated in several different ways as shown in figure 1:
Figure 1: Solomon’s four group design
Group Pretest Treatment Posttest
1. Experimental O1 X O2
2. Control O3 - O4
3. Experimental - X O5
4. Control - - O6
(O2 – O1) = E
(O4 - O3) = E
(O5 - O6) = E
(O5 - O3) = E
[(O2 - O1) – (O4 – O3)] = E
E = Effect
If all Es are similar, the cause and effect relationship is highly valid.
Interaction Effect
The effect of two variables together is likely to be greater than the individual effect of each put together. The
idea of an interaction effect is familiar, especially in the area of medicine or illness. As an example, imagine
that for a given population of 100 persons, all of the same age and sex, it was found that if all 100 smoked
cigarettes the effect would be a lung cancer rate of 20 percent. Assume that for an identical group of 100
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 81 |
| persons who did not smoke but lived in a smoggy environment, 10 percent would get lung cancer. Now |
| Lesson 35 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (Cont.) |
Experimental group 1: Pretest (O1) X Posttest (O2)
Control group: Pretest (O3) - Posttest (O4)
Why O4 be different from O3? The difference may be due to sensitization. So let us figure it out. Let us take
another experimental group and we do not pretest i.e. no sensitization with the instrument.
Experimental group 2: No pretest X Posttest (O5)
Let us work out the results:
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 82
Internal validity is high in the laboratory experiment, reason being the control over all the confounding factors.
External validity (generalizability) is not sure because of the effect of variety of factors. Field experiments have
more external validity but less internal validity because it is closer to the real situations.
Factors Affecting Internal Validity
In choosing or evaluating experimental research design, researchers must determine whether they have
internal and external validity. There are eight major types of extraneous variables that may jeopardize internal
validity: History effect, maturation effect, testing effect, instrumentation effect, selection bias effect, statistical
regression, mortality, and mechanical loss.
1. History Effect:
A specific event in the external environment occurring between the first and second measurement that is
beyond the control of the experimenter and that affects the validity of an experiment. Advertisement of a
particular product (mineral water) and its sale is affected by an event in the society (contamination of drinking
water). The researcher does not have control on such happenings which have an impact on the X and Y
relationship.
2.Maturation Effect: Cause and effect relationship can also be contaminated by the effects of the passage of
time – another uncontrollable variable. Such contamination is called maturation effect. The maturation effects
are a function of the processes – biological and psychological – operating within the subjects as a result of the
passage of time. Examples of maturation processes could include growing older, getting tired, feeling hungry,
and getting bored. In other words there could be maturation effect on the dependent variable purely because
of the passage of time. For example, let us say that an R & D director intends that an increase in the efficiency
of workers would result within three months‟ time if advanced technology is introduced in the work setting. If
at the end of three months increased efficiency is indeed found, it will be difficult to claim that the advanced
technology (and it alone) increased the efficiency of workers, because with the passage of time, employees
would also gained experience, resulting in better performance and therefore improved efficiency. Thus, the
internal validity also gets reduced owing to the effects of maturation in as much as it is difficult to pinpoint how
much of the increase is attributable to the introduction of the enhanced technology alone.
3.Testing Effects: Frequently, to test the effects of treatment, subjects are given what is called a pretest
(say, a short questionnaire eliciting their feelings and attitudes). That is, a measure of the dependent variable
is taken (pretest), then the treatment given, and after that a second test, called posttest, administered. The
difference between the posttest and the pretest scores is then attributed to the treatment. However, the very
fact that the subjects were exposed to the pretest might influence their responses on the posttest, which will
adversely impact on internal validity. It is also called sensitization through previous testing.
4.Instrumentation Effects: Instrumentation effects are yet another source of threat to internal validity. These
might arise because of a change in the measuring instrument between pretest and posttest, and not because
of the instrument‟s differential impact at the end. For example, in a weightloss experiment, the springs on the
scale weaken during the experiment, giving lower readings in the posttest.
A change in the wording of questions (may be done to avoid testing effects), change in interviewers, or change
in other procedures to measure the dependent variable can cause instrumentation effect.
Performance of the subjects measured by the units of output in the pretest, but when measuring the output in
posttest the researcher measures it by the number of units rejected, and the amount of resources expended
to produce the units.
5.Selection Bias Effect: Selection bias is the threat that subjects will not form equivalent groups. It is a
problem in design without random assignment, hence differential selection of the subjects for the comparison
groups. It occurs when subjects in one experimental group have a characteristic that affects the dependent
variable. For example, in an experiment on physical aggressiveness, the experimental group unintentionally
contains subjects who are sportsmen, whereas the control group is made up of musicians, chess players, and
painters.
6.Statistical Regression: Statistical regression is not easy to grasp intuitively. It is a problem of extreme
values or a tendency for random error to move group results towards the average. If extremes are taken then
they tend to regress toward the mean. Those who are on either end of the extreme would not truly reflect the
cause and effect relationship.
One situation arises when subjects are unusual with regard to dependent variable. Because they begin as
unusual or extreme, subjects are likely to respond further in the same direction. For example, a researcher
wants to see whether violent films make people act violently. The researcher chooses a group of violent
criminals from a high security prison, gives them a pretest, shows violent films, and then administers a posttest.
To the researcher‟s surprise, the criminals are slightly less violent after the film, whereas a control group of
non-prisoners who did see the film are slightly more violent than before. Because the violent criminals began
at an extreme, it is unlikely that a treatment could make them more violent; by random chance alone, they
appear less extreme when measured a second time.
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 83
If participants chosen for experimental group have extreme scores on the dependent variable to begin with
then the laws of probability say that those with very low scores on a variable have a greater probability to
improve and scoring closer to mean on the posttest after treatment. This phenomenon of low scorers tending
to score closer to the mean is known as “regressing toward the mean.”
Likewise, those with high scores have a greater tendency to regress toward the mean – will score lower on
the posttest than on pretest. Thus the extremes will not “truly” reflect the causal relationship – a threat to
internal validity.
7.Mortality: Mortality, or attrition, arises when some subjects do not continue throughout the experiment.
Although the word mortality means death, it does not necessarily mean that subjects have died. If a subset of
subjects leaves partway through an experiment, a researcher cannot whether the results would have been
different had the subjects stayed. Even with departure of few subjects, the groups do not remain balanced.
Consider for example of a training experiment that investigates the effects of close supervision of salespersons
(high pressure) versus low supervision (low supervision). The high pressure condition may misleadingly
appear to be superior if those subjects who completed the experiment did very well. If, however, the highpressure condition caused more subjects to drop-out than the other condition, this apparent superiority may
be due to a self-selection bias (those who could not bear the pressure had left – mortality) – perhaps only very
determined and/or talented salespersons made it through the end of the experiment.
8.Mechanical Loss: A problem may be experienced due to equipment failure. For example, in an experiment
if the subjects are told that their behavior is being videotaped, and during the experiment the video equipment
failed to work for some subjects, then the validity of the results could become doubtful.
9.Experimenter Expectancy: In addition to the usually listed eight factors affecting the internal validity
sometimes experimenter expectancy may threaten the causal logic of the relationship between the variables.
A researcher may threaten internal validity, not purposefully unethical behavior but by indirectly
communicating experimenter expectancy to the subjects. Researchers may highly committed to the
hypothesis and indirectly communicate desired findings to subjects. For example, a researcher studying
reactions towards disabled deeply believes that females are more sensitive toward the disabled than the males
are. Through eye contact, tone of voice, pauses, and other nonverbal communication, the researcher
unconsciously encourages female subjects to report positive feelings toward the disabled; the researcher‟s
nonverbal behavior is the opposite for male subjects.
The double-blind experiment is designed to control experimenter expectancy. In it, people who have direct
contact with subjects do not know the details of the hypothesis or the treatment. It is double blind because
both the subjects and those in contact with them are blind to details of the experiment. For example a
researcher wants to see if new drug is effective. Using capsules of three colors – green, yellow, and pink --
the researcher puts the new drug in the yellow capsule, puts an old drug in the pink one, and take the green
capsule a placebo – a false treatment that appears to be real (e.g., a sugar capsule without any physical
effects). Assistants who give the capsules and record the effects do not know which color contains the new
drug. Only another person who does not deal with subjects directly knows which colored capsule contains
the drug and examines the results.
External Validity
Even if the researcher eliminates all concerns for internal validity, external validity remains a potential problem.
External validity is the ability to generalize experimental findings to real life situations. Without external validity,
the findings are of little use for both basic and applied research i.e. we shall not be able to develop any theories
that could be applicable to similar other situations.
Reactivity: A Threat to External Validity
Subjects may react differently in an experiment than they would in real life; because they know they are in a
study. The Hawthorn Effect, a specific kind of reactivity to the experimental situation is a good example in this
respect. The experiment was conducted in the Hawthorn Electric Company where the performance of the
participants was supposed to change due to the change in the environmental conditions i.e. improvement on
the environmental conditions will have a positive effect on the performance. The researchers modified many
aspects of the working conditions and measured productivity. Productivity rose after each modification.
Productivity rose even if there was no real modification but it was announced that there is a modification. The
behavior change was simply a reaction to the announcement of modification and some other factors like the
participants were being watched and had a feeling of being „very important persons.‟
Here the workers did not respond to treatment (modification of working conditions) but to the additional
attention they received (being in the experiment ad being the focus of attention).
Demand characteristic (discussed earlier) is another type of reactivity. Here the participants change their
behavior as a reaction to the demands of the experimenter who may have inadvertently told the subjects about
the expected outcome of the treatment. They change their behavior as demanded by the experimenter.
Ethical Issues in Lab Experiments
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 84 |
| We have already discussed the ethical issues in research. Just for the sake of emphasis, it may be appropriate |
| Lesson 36 NON-REACTIVE RESEARCH |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 85
Count Behaviors: Counting how many people do something can be informative. For example a researcher
may count the number of men and women who come to a full stop and those who come to a rolling stop at a
traffic stop sign. This suggests gender difference in driving behavior.
Time Duration: How long people take to do things may indicate their intention. For example, a researcher may
measure how long men and women pause in front of a particular painting. Time taken may indicate their
interest in the painting.
Recording and Documentation
Creating non-reactive measures follows the logic of quantitative measurement, although qualitative
researchers also use non-reactive observations. A researcher first conceptualizes a construct, and then links
the construct to non-reactive empirical evidence, which is its measure. The operational definition of the variable
includes how the researcher systematically notes and records observations.
Content Analysis
Content analysis is a technique for gathering and analyzing the content of a text. The content refers to words,
meanings, pictures, symbols, ideas, themes, or any message that can be communicated. The text is anything
written, visual, or spoken that serves as a medium of communication.
Possible artifacts for study could be books, newspaper or magazine articles, advertisements, poems, letters,
laws, constitutions, dramas, speeches, official documents, films or videotapes, musical lyrics, photographs,
articles of clothing, or works of arts. All these works may be called as documents. The documents can be:
Personal – letters, diary, autobiography.
Non-personal – interoffice memos, official documents, proceedings of a meeting.
Mass media – newspapers, magazines, fiction, films, songs, poems, works of arts.
Content analysis goes back nearly a century and is used in many fields – literature, history, journalism, political
science, education, psychology, sociology, and so on. It is also called a study of communication, which means
who says what, to whom, why, how, and with what effect.
In content analysis, the researcher uses objective and systematic counting and recording procedures to
produce a quantitative description of the symbolic content in a text. It may also be called “textual coding.”
There are qualitative versions of content analysis. The emphasis here is quantitative data about a text‟s
content.
Content Analysis is Non-Reactive: It is non-reactive because the placing of words, messages, or
symbols in a text to communicate to the reader or receiver occurs without influence from the researcher who
analyzes its contents. There is no interaction between the researcher and the creator of the text under analysis.
Content analysis lets a researcher reveal the contents (i.e. messages, meanings, symbols, etc.) in a source
of communication (i.e. a book, article, movie, etc.). It lets him/her probe into and discover content in a different
way from ordinary way of reading a book or watching a television program.
With content analysis, a researcher can compare content across many texts and analyze it with quantitative
techniques (table, charts). In addition, he or she can reveal aspects of the texts content that are difficult to
see. For example, you might watch television commercials and feel that women are mostly portrayed working
in the house, cooking food, using detergents, looking after children. Content analysis can document – in
objective, quantitative terms – whether or not your vague feelings based on unsystematic observation are true.
It yields repeatable, precise results about the text.
Content analysis involves random sampling, precise measurement, and operational definitions for abstract
constructs. Coding turns aspects of content that represent variables into numbers. After a content analysis
researcher gathers the data, he or she enters them into computers and analyzes them with statistics in the
same way that an experiment or survey researcher would.
Measurement and Coding
Careful measurement is crucial in content analysis because a researcher takes different and murky symbolic
communication and turns it into precise, objective, quantitative data. He or she carefully designs and
documents the procedures for coding to make replication possible. For example, a researcher wants to
determine how frequently television dramas portray elderly characters in terms of negative stereotypes. He
or she develops a measure of the construct “negatively stereotypes of the elderly.” The conceptualization may
result in a list of stereotypes or negative generalizations about older people (e.g., senile, forgetful, frail, hard
of hearing, slow, ill, inactive, conservative, etc.) that do not accurately reflect the elderly. Another example
could be negative stereotypes about women.
Constructs in content analysis are operationalized with a coding system, a set of instructions or rules on how
to systematically observe and record content from text. Look at the construct of “leadership role;” for measuring
this construct written rules should be provided telling how to classify people. Same is about the concept of
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 86
“social class.” In case the researcher has three categories of upper, middle, and lower class then the
researcher must tell what are the characteristics that are associated with upper class, middle class, and the
lower class so that the coders could easily classify people in the three proposed categories.
Observations can be structured: Measurement in content analysis uses structured observation i.e.
systematic, careful observation based on written rules. The rules explain how to categorize and classify
observations in terms of:
Frequency: Frequency simply means counting whether or not something occurs and how often (how
many times). For example how many elderly people appear on a television program within a given
week? What percentage of all characteristics are they, or in what percentage of programs do they
appear.
Direction: Direction is noting the direction of messages in the content along some continuum (e.g.,
positive or negative, supporting or opposed). For example the researcher devises a list of ways an
elderly television character can act. Some are positive (e.g., friendly, wise, considerate) and some are
negative (e.g., nasty, dull, selfish).
Intensity: Intensity is the strength or power of a message in a direction. For example, the
characteristic of forgetfulness can be minor (e.g. not remembering to take the keys when leaving home,
taking time to recall the name of someone whom you have not seen in years) or major (e.g., not
remembering your name, not recognizing your children).
Space: A researcher can record the size of the text message or the amount of space or volume
allocated to it. Space in written text is measured by counting words, sentences, paragraphs, or space
on a page (e.g. square inches). For video or audio text, space can be measured by the amount of time
allocated. For example, a TV character may be present for a few seconds or continuously in every
seen of a two hour program.
The unit analysis can vary a great deal in content analysis. It can be a word, a phrase, a theme, a plot,
a newspaper article, a character, and so forth.
Coding
Coding is the process of identifying and classifying each item and giving labels to each category. Later on
each category may be assigned a numerical value for its entry into the computer. In content analysis one can
look at the manifest coding and latent coding.
Manifest Coding: Coding the visible, surface content in a text is called manifest coding. For example, a
researcher counts the number of times a phrase or word (e.g. red) appears in the written text, or whether a
specific action (e.g. shaking hands) appears in a photograph or video scene. The coding system lists terms or
actions or characters that are then located in text. A researcher can use a computer program to search for
words or phrases in the text and have a computer do the counting work.
Manifest coding is highly reliable because the phrase or the word either is or is not present. However, manifest
coding does not take the connotation of word into account. The same word can take on different meanings
depending on the context. The possibility that there are multiple meanings of a word limits the measurement
validity of manifest coding.
Latent Coding: A researcher using latent coding (also called semantic analysis) looks for the underlying
meaning in the content of a text. For example, the researcher reads the entire paragraph and decides whether
it contains vulgar themes or a romantic mood. His or her coding system has general rules to guide his or her
interpretation of the text and for determining whether particular themes or mood are present.
Latent coding tends to be less reliable than the manifest coding. It depends on a coder‟s knowledge of
language and its social meaning. Training, practice, and written rules improve reliability, but still it is difficult to
consistently identify themes, moods, and the like.
Keeping in view the amount of work, often a number of coders are hired. The researcher trains the coders in
coding system. Coders should understand the variables, follow the coding system, and ask about ambiguities.
A researcher who uses several coders must always check for consistency across coders. He or she does this
by asking coders to code the same text independently and then checking for consistency across coders. The
researcher measures inter-coder reliability, a type of equivalence reliability, with a statistical coefficient that
tells the degree of consistency across among coders. The coefficient is always reported with the results of
content analysis research.
How to Conduct Content Analysis Research
Question Formulation: As in most research, content analysis researchers begin with a research question.
When the question involves variables that are messages or symbols, content analysis may be appropriate.
For example, how women are portrayed in advertisements? The construct here is the portrayal of women
which may be measured by looking at the activities they are shown to be doing, the occupations in which they
are employed, the way decision making is taking place, etc.
Unit of Analysis: A researcher decides on the unit of analysis (i.e. the amount of text that is assigned a
code). In the previous example each advertisement may be a unit of analysis.
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 87 |
| Sampling: Researchers often use random sampling in content analysis. First, they define the population |
| Lesson 37 USE OF SECONDARY DATA |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 88
as diaries, posthumously published autobiographies, and suicide notes may be the only way to obtain such
information.
8. Relatively low cost: Although the cost of documentary analysis can vary widely depending on the type
of document analyzed, how widely documents are dispersed, and how far one must travel to gain access
to them, documentary analysis can be inexpensive compared to large-scale surveys. Many a time‟s
documents are gathered together in a centralized location such as library where the researcher can study
them for only the cost of travel to the repository.
9. High quality: Although documents vary tremendously in quality, many documents, such as newspaper
columns, are written by skilled commentators and may be more valuable than, for example, poorly written
responses to mailed questionnaires.
Disadvantages
1. Bias: Many documents used in research were not originally intended for research purposes. The various
goals and purposes for which documents are written can bias them in various ways. For example, personal
documents such as confessional articles or autobiographies are often written by famous people or people
who had some unusual experience such as having been a witness to a specific event. While often providing
a unique and valuable research data, these documents usually are written for the purpose of making
money. Thus they tend to exaggerate and even fabricate to make good story. They also tend to include
those events that make the author look good and exclude those that cast him or her in a negative light.
2. Selective survival: Since documents are usually written on paper, they do not withstand the elements
well unless care is taken to preserve them. Thus while documents written by famous people are likely to
be preserved, day-to-day documents such as letters and diaries written by common people tend either to
be destroyed or to be placed in storage and thus become inaccessible. It is relatively rare for common
documents that are not about some events of immediate interest to the researcher (e.g., suicide) and not
about famous occurrence or by some famous person to be gathered together in a public repository that is
accessible to researchers.
3. Incompleteness: Many documents provide incomplete account to the researcher who has had no prior
experience with or knowledge of the events or behavior discussed. A problem with many personal
documents such as letters and diaries is that they were not written for research purposes but were
designed to be private or even secret. Both these kinds of documents often assume specific knowledge
that researcher unfamiliar with certain events will not possess. Diaries are probably the worst in this
respect, since they are usually written to be read only by the author and can consist more of “soul
searching” and confession than of description. Letters tend to be little more complete, since they are
addressed to a second person. Since many letters assume a great amount of prior information on the part
of the reader.
4. Lack of availability of documents: In addition to the bias, incompleteness, and selective survival of
documents, there are many areas of study for which no documents are available. In many cases
information simply was never recorded. In other cases it was recorded, but the documents remain secret
or classified, or have been destroyed.
5. Sampling bias: One of the problems of bias occurs because persons of lower educational or income
levels are less likely to be represented in the sampling frames. The problem of sampling bias by
educational level is more acute for document study than for survey research. It is a safe generalization
that a poorly educated people are much less likely than well educated people to write documents.
6. Limited to verbal behavior: By definition, documents provide information only about respondent‟s
verbal behavior, and provide no direct information on the respondent‟s nonverbal behavior, either that of
the document‟s author or other characters in the document.
7. Lack of standardized format: Documents differ quite widely in regard to their standardization of
format. Some documents such as newspapers appear frequently in a standard format. Large dailies
always contain such standard components as editorial page, business page, sports page, and weather
report. Standardization facilitates comparison across time for the same newspapers and comparison
across different newspapers at one point in time. However, many other documents, particularly personal
documents have no standard format. Comparison is difficult or impossible, since valuable information
contained in the document at one point in time may be entirely lacking in an earlier or later documents.
8. Coding difficulties: For a number of reasons, including differences in purpose for which the documents
were written, differences in content or subject matter, lack of standardization, and differences in length and
format, coding is one of the most difficult tasks facing the content analyst. Documents are generally written
arrangements, rather than numbers are quite difficult to quantify. Thus analysis of documents is similar to
analysis of open-ended survey questions.
9. Data must be adjusted for comparability over time: Although one of the advantages of document
study is that comparisons may be made over a long period of time, since external events cause changes
so drastic that even if a common unit of measure is used for the entire period, the value of this unit may
have changed so much over time that comparisons are misleading unless corrections are made. Look at
the change in measuring distance, temperature, currency, and even literacy in Pakistan.
Use of Secondary Data: Existing Statistics/Documents
Secondary Data
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 89
Secondary data refer to information gathered by someone other than the researcher conducting the present
study. Secondary data are usually historical, already assembled, and do not require access to respondents or
subjects. Many types of information about the social and behavioral world have been collected and are
available to the researcher. Some information is in the form of statistical documents (books, reports) that
contain numerical information. Other information is in the form of published compilations available in a library
or on computerized records. In either case the researcher can search through collections of information with
a research question and variables in mind, and then reassemble the information in new ways to address the
research question.
Secondary data may be collected by large bureaucratic organization like the Bureau of Statistics or other
government or private agencies. These data may have been collected for policy decisions or as part of public
service.
The data may be a time bound collection of information (population census) as well as spread over long periods
of time (unemployment trends, crime rate). Secondary data are used for making comparisons over time in the
country (population trends in the country) as well as across the countries (world population trends).
Selecting Topic for Secondary Analysis
Search through the collections of information with research question and variables in mind, and then
reassemble the information in new ways to address the research question.
It is difficult to specify topics that are appropriate for existing statistics research because they are so varied.
Any topic on which information has been collected and is publicly available can be studied. In fact, existing
statistics projects may not neatly fit into a deductive model of research design. Rather researchers creatively
recognize the existing information into the variables for a research question after first finding what data are
available.
Experiments are best for topics where the researcher controls a situation and manipulates an independent
variable. Survey research is best for topics where the researcher asks questions and learns about reported
attitudes and behavior. Content analysis is for topics that involve the content of messages in cultural
communication.
Existing statistics research is best for topics that involve information collected by large bureaucratic
organizations. Public or private organizations systematically gather many types of information. Such
information is collected for policy decisions or as a public service. It is rarely collected for purposes directly
related to a specific research question. Thus existing statistics research is appropriate when a researcher
wants to test hypotheses involving variables that are also in official reports of social, economic and political
conditions. These include descriptions of organizations or people in them. Often, such information is collected
over long periods. For example, existing statistics can be used by researcher who wants to see whether
unemployment and crime rates are associated in 100 cities across a 20 year period.
As part of the trends, say in development, researchers try to develop social indicators for measuring the wellbeing of the people. A social indicator is any measure of wellbeing used in policy. There are many specific
indicators that are operationalization of well-being. It is hoped that information about social well-being could
be combined with widely used indicators of economic performance (e.g., gross national product) to better
inform government and other policy making officials.
The main sources of existing statistics are government or international agencies and private sources. An
enormous volume and variety of information exists. If you plan to conduct existing statistics research, it is wise
to discuss your interests with an information professional – in this case, a reference librarian, who can point
you in the direction of possible sources.
Many existing documents are “free” – that is, publicly available at libraries – but the time and effort it takes to
research for specific information can be substantial. Researchers who conduct existing statistics research
spend many hours in libraries or on the internet.
There are so many sources of existing statistics like: UN publications, UNESCO Statistical Yearbook, UN
Statistical Yearbook, Demographic Yearbook, Labor Force Survey of Pakistan, and Population Census Data.
Secondary Survey Data
Secondary analysis is a special case of existing statistics; it is reanalysis of previously collected survey or
other data that was originally gathered by others. As opposed to primary research (e.g., experiments, surveys,
and content analysis), the focus is on analyzing rather than collecting data.
Secondary analysis is increasingly used by researchers. It is relatively inexpensive; it permits comparisons
across groups, nations, or time; it facilitates replication; and permits asking about issues not thought by the
original researchers. There are several questions the researcher interested in secondary research should ask:
Are the secondary data appropriate for the research question? What theory and hypothesis can a researcher
use with the data? Is the researcher already familiar with the substantive area? Does the researcher
understand how the data were originally gathered and coded?
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 90 |
| Large-scale data collection is expensive and difficult. The cost and time required for major national surveys |
| Lesson 38 OBSERVATION STUDIES/FIELD RESEARCH |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 91
Quantitative research produces hard data: numbers. It follows a positivist approach to research in which the
researcher speaks the language of variables and hypotheses. There is a much emphasis on precise
measurement of variables and the testing of hypotheses. The researcher tries to establish causality. In most
of the case there is a linear approach i.e. it follows sequential steps in doing research.
Participant/Non-Participant Observation
Observation studies can be participant or non-participant. In participant observation the researcher directly
observes and participates in small scale social settings in the present time. Such a study is also referred to as
field research, ethnography, or anthropological study. Here the researchers:
Study people in their natural settings, or in situ.
Study people by directly interacting with them.
Gain an understanding of the social world and make theoretical statements about members‟
perspective.
The people could be a group who interact with each other on regular basis in a field setting: a street corner, a
tea shop, a club, a nomad group, a village, etc.
Non-participant studies are such where the research tries to observe the behavior of people without interacting
with them. It could be observing the behavior of shoppers in a departmental store through a mirror or on a
closed circuit TV. Somebody might be counting the number of vehicles crossing a particular traffic light.
Field researchers study people in a location or setting. It has been used to study entire communities. Field
research has a distinct set of methodologies. Field researchers directly observe and interact with community
members in natural settings to get inside their perspectives. They embrace an activist or social constructionist
perspective on social life. They do not see people as a neutral medium through which social forces operate,
nor do they see social meanings as something “out there” to observe. Instead they believe that people create
and define the social world through their interactions. Human experiences are filtered through a subjective
sense of reality, which affects how people see and act on events. Thus they replace the positivist emphasis
on “objective facts” with a focus on the everyday, face-to-face social processes of negotiation, discussion,
and bargaining to construct social meaning.
Ethnography and Ethno-methodology
Two modern extensions of field research, ethnography and ethno-methodology, build on the social
constructionist perspective.
Ethnography comes from cultural anthropology. Ethno means people or a folk distinct by their culture and
ethnography refers to describing something. Thus ethnography means describing a culture and understanding
another way of life from the native point of view. It is just an understanding the culture of people from their own
perspective.
Ethno-methodology implies how people create reality and how they interpret it. Ethnomethodologists examine ordinary social interaction in great detail to identify the rules for constructing social
reality and common sense, how these rules are applied, and how new rules are created. They try to figure out
how certain meanings are attached to a reality.
Logic of Field Research
It is difficult to pin down a specific definition of field research because it is more of an orientation toward
research than a fixed set of techniques to apply. A field researcher uses various methods to obtain information.
A field researcher is a „methodological pragmatist,‟ a resourceful, talented individual who has ingenuity and
an ability to think on his or feet while in the field.
Field research is based on naturalism, which involves observing ordinary events in natural settings, not in
contrived, invented, or researcher created settings.
A field researcher examines social meanings and grasps multiple perspectives in natural setting. He or she
gets inside the meanings system of members and goes back to an outside or research viewpoint. Fieldwork
means involvement and detachment, loyalty and betrayal, both openness and secrecy, and most likely, love
and hate. The researcher switches perspectives and sees the setting from multiple pints of view
simultaneously. Researchers maintains membership in the culture in which they were reared (research
culture) while establishing membership in the groups which they are studying. The researcher‟s direct
involvement in the field often has an emotional impact. Field research can be fun and exciting, but it can also
disrupt one‟s personal life, physical security, or mental well-being.
More than other types of research, it reshapes friendship, family life, self-identity, or personal values.
What Do the Field Researchers Do?
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 92 |
| A field researcher does the following: |
| Lesson 39 OBSERVATION STUDIES (Contd.) |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 93
Field site is the context in which events or activities occur, a socially defined territory with shifting boundaries.
A social group may interact across several physical sites. For example, a college football team may interact
on the playing field, in the dressing room, at a training camp or at the place where they are staying. The team‟s
field site includes all four locations.
Physical access to a site can be an issue. Sites can be on a continuum, with open and public areas (e.g.,
public restaurants, airport waiting rooms) at one end and closed and private settings (e.g., private firms, clubs,
activities in a person‟s home) at the other end. A researcher may find that he or she is not welcome or not
allowed on the site, or there are legal and political barriers to access.
Look for the gate keepers for getting an entry. A gatekeeper is someone with the formal authority to control
access to a site. It can be a thug at the corner, an administrator of a hospital, or the owner of a business. In
formal public areas (e.g., sidewalks, public waiting rooms) rarely have gatekeepers; formal organizations have
authorities from whom permission must be obtained. Field researchers expect to negotiate with gatekeepers
and bargain for access. Entry and access can be visualized as an access ladder. A researcher begins at the
bottom rung, where access is easy and where he or she is an outsider looking for public information. The next
access rung requires increased access. Once close on-site observations begin, he or she becomes a passive
observer, not questioning what members of community say. With time in the field, the researcher observes
specific activities that are potentially sensitive or seeks clarification of what he or she sees or hears. Reaching
this access rung is more difficult. Finally, the researcher may try to shape interaction so that it reveals specific
information, or he or she may want to see highly sensitive material. This highest rung of access ladder is rarely
attained and requires deep trust. Such a situation may be applicable to a site of a public or private organization.
In other situations just like entering the village community, the researcher may have to use different kind of
access ladder. He or she may have to use local influential and some other contact persons who could introduce
the researcher to local leaders and help building the rapport.
3. Enter the field and establish social relations with members. Present yourself in the field the way it is
acceptable to the people to be studied. Develop relations and establish rapport with individual members.
Here the researcher may have to learn the local language. A field researcher builds rapport by getting
along with members in the field. He or she forges a friendly relationship, shares the same language, and
laughs and cries with members. This is a step toward obtaining an understanding of members and moving
beyond understanding to empathy – that is seeing and feeling events from another‟s perspective.
4. Enter the field: Adopt a social role, learn the ropes, and get along with members. At times, a
researcher adopts an existing role. Some existing roles provide access to all areas of the site, the ability
to observe and interact with all members, the freedom to move around, and a way to balance the
requirements of researcher and member. There could be some limitations for the adoption of specific roles.
Such limitations may be because of researcher‟s age, race, gender, and attractiveness. At other times, a
researcher creates new roles or modifies the existing one. The adoption of field role takes time, and a
researcher may adopt several different field roles over time.
The role may also depend upon the level of involvement in the community‟s activities. The researcher may be
a complete observer, observer as participant, participant as observer, and complete participant.
As a researcher learns the ropes on the field site, he or she learns how to cope with personal stress, how to
normalize the social research, and how to act like an “acceptable incompetent.” A researcher is in the field to
learn, not to be an expert. Depending on the setting, he or she appears to be friendly but naïve outsider, an
acceptable incompetent who is interested in learning about social life of the field. An acceptable incompetent
is one who is partially competent (skilled or knowledgeable) in the setting but who‟s accepted as a nonthreatening person
5. Observing and collecting data: Watch, listen, and collect quality data. A great deal of what field
researchers do in the field is to pay attention, watch, and listen carefully. They use all the senses, noticing
what is seen, heard, smelled, tasted, or touched. The researcher becomes an instrument that absorbs all
sources of information.
Most field research data are in the form of field notes. Good notes are the brick and mortar of field research.
Full field notes can contain maps, diagrams, photographs, interviews, tape recordings, videotapes, memos,
objects from the field, notes jotted in the field, and detailed notes written away from the field. A field researcher
expects to fill many notebooks, or the equivalent in computer memory. He or she may spend more time writing
notes than being in the field.
Writing notes is often boring, tedious work that requires self-discipline. The notes contain extensive descriptive
detail drawn from memory. The researcher makes it a daily habit or compulsion to write notes immediately
after leaving the field. The notes must be neat and organized because the researcher will return to them over
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 94
and over again. Once written, the notes are private and valuable. A researcher treats them with care and
protects confidentiality.
Field researcher is supposed to collect quality data. What does the term high-quality data mean in the field
research, and what does a researcher do to get it? For a quantitative researcher, high quality data are reliable
and valid; they give precise, consistent measures of the “objective” truth for all researchers. An interpretive
approach suggests a different kind of data quality. Instead of assuming one single, objective truth, field
researchers hold that members subjectively interpret experiences within social context. What a member takes
to be true results from social interaction and interpretation. Thus high quality field data capture such processes
and provide an understanding of the member‟s viewpoint.
field researcher does not eliminate subjective views to get quality data: rather, quality data include his or her
subjective responses and experiences. Quality field data are detailed descriptions from the researcher‟s
immersion and authentic experiences in the social world of members.
6. Begin to analyze data generate and evaluate working hypothesis. Right in the field try to look into the
research questions and the kind of answers the researcher is getting. The analysis of the answers might
help in the generation of hypotheses. Over time are such hypotheses being supported by further field
research?
7. Focus on specific aspects of the setting and use theoretical sampling. Field researcher first gets a
general picture, and then focuses on a few specific problems or issues. A researcher decides on specific
research questions and develops hypotheses only after being in the field and experiencing it first-hand. At
first, everything seems relevant; later, however, selective attention focuses on specific questions and
themes.
Field research sampling differs from survey sampling, although sometime both use snowball sampling. A field
researcher samples by taking a smaller, selective set of observations from all possible observations. It is called
theoretical sampling because it is guided by the researcher‟s developing theory. Field researchers sample
times, situations, types of events, locations, types of people, or context of interest.
For example, field researcher samples time by observing a setting at different times. He or she observes at all
time of the day, on every day of the week, and in all seasons to get a full sense of how the field site stays the
same or changes. Another example, when the field researcher samples locations because one location may
give depth, but narrow perspective. Sitting or standing in different locations helps the researcher to get a sense
of the whole site. Similarly the field researchers sample people by focusing their attention or interaction on
different kinds of people (young, adult, old).
8. Conduct field interviews with member informants. Field researchers use unstructured, nondirective,
in-depth interviews, which differs from formal survey research interviews in many ways. The field interview
involves asking question, listening, expressing interest, and recording what was said.
Field interview is a joint production of a research and a member. Members are active participants whose
insights, feelings, and cooperation are essential parts of a discussion process that reveals subjective meaning.
The interviewer‟s presence and form of involvement – how he or she listens, attends, encourages, interrupts,
disagrees, initiates topics, and terminates responses – is integral to the respondent‟s account.
Field research interviews go by many names: unstructured, depth, ethnographic, open ended, informal, and
long. Generally, they involve one or more people being present, occur in the field, and are informal and
nondirective.
comparison of the field research interview and a survey interview could be as below:
Survey Interview Field Interview
1. It has clear beginning and end. 1. The beginning and end are not clear. The
interview can be picked up later.
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 95
2. The same standard questions are
asked of all respondents in the same
sequence.
2. The questions and the order in which they are
asked are tailored to specific people and
situations.
3. The interviewer appears neutral at all
times.
3.The interviewer shows interest in responses,
encourages elaboration.
4. The interviewer asks questions, and
the respondent answers.
4. It is like a friendly conversational exchange but
with more interviewer questions.
5. It is almost always with one
respondent alone.
5. It can occur in group setting or with others in
area, but varies.
6. It has a professional tone and
| businesslike | focus, | diversions | are |
6. It is interspersed with jokes, aside, stories,
diversions, and anecdotes, which are recorded.
7. Closed-ended questions are common,
with rare probes.
7. Open-ended questions are common, and probes
are frequent.
8. The interviewer alone controls the
pace and direction of interview.
8. The interviewer and member jointly control the
pace and direction of the interview.
9. The social context in which the
interview occurs is ignored and assumed
to make little difference.
9. The social context of the interview is noted and
seen as important for interpreting the meaning of
responses.
10. The interviewer attempts to mold the
communication pattern into a standard
framework.
10. The interviewer adjusts to the member‟s
norms and language usages.
9. Disengage and physically leave the setting. Work in the field can last for a few weeks to a dozen years.
In either case at some point of work in the field ends. Some researchers suggest that the end comes
naturally when the theory building ceases or reaches a closure; others feel that fieldwork could go on
without end and that a firm decision to cut off relations is needed. Experienced field researchers anticipate
a process of disengaging and exiting the field. Depending on the intensity of involvement and the length
of time in the field, the process can be disruptive or emotionally painful for both the researcher and the
members.
Once researcher decides to leave – because the project reaches a natural end and little new is being learned,
or because external factors force it to end (e.g., end of job, gatekeepers order the researcher out) – he or she
chooses a method of exiting. The researcher can leave by quick exit (simply not return one day) or slowly
withdraw, reducing his or her involvement over weeks. He or she also needs to decide how to tell members
and how much advance warning to give. The best way to exist is to follow the local norms and continuing with
the friendly relations.
10. Complete the analysis and write the report. After disengaging from the field setting the researcher writes
the report. The researcher may share the written report with the members observed to verify the accuracy
and get their approval of its portrayal in print. It may help in determining the validity of the findings.
However, it may not be possible to share the findings with marginal groups like addicts, and some deviant
groups.
Ethical Dilemmas of Field research
The direct personal involvement of a field researcher in the social lives of other people raises many ethical
dilemmas. The dilemmas arise when the researcher is alone in the field and has little time to make a moral
decision. Although he or she may be aware of general ethical issues before entering the field, they arise
unexpectedly in the course of observing and interacting in the field. Let us look at some of these dilemmas:
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 96 |
| Deception: Deception arises in several ways in field research. The research may be covert; or may assume |
| Lesson 40 HISTORICAL COMPARATIVE RESEARCH |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 97
perspective. Concepts are less likely to be restricted to a single historical time or to a single culture; they can
be grounded in the experiences of people living in a specific cultural and historical context.
Historical-Comparative research focuses on:
Tracing the development of social forms (patterns) overtime as well as its broad historical processes,
and
Comparing those forms and its developmental processes across cultures (countries/nations).
Historical-Comparative research follows scientific approach:
Can be a survey of events in history – could be through the study of documents.
Organizations generally document themselves, so if one is studying the development of some
organization he/she should examine its official documents: charters, policy statements, speeches by
the leaders, and so on. Often, official government documents provide the data needed for analysis.
To better appreciate the history of race relations in the United States one could examine 200 years of
laws and court cases involving race.
One could also do the communication analysis of different documents related to a particular issue (like
the communication among the leaders of Pakistan movement through their letters, communication
between the migrants to a new country and their relatives back in their country of origin)
Researcher could also get lot of information by interviewing people who may recall historical events
(like interviewing participants in the Pakistan movement).
Historical-Comparative researchers mostly do a longitudinal analysis i.e. look into the developmental
processes of the issues under reference.
Historical-Comparative researchers make cross-cultural comparisons of the social forms or economic
form as well as the developmental processes of those forms, aiming at making generalizations.
Examples:
Social forms: Several researchers have examined the historical development of ideas about different forms
of society. They have looked at the progression of social forms from simple to complex, from rural, from ruralagrarian to urban-industrial. The US anthropologist Lewis Morgan, for example, saw a progression from
“savagery to “barbarism” to “civilization.” Robert Redfield, another anthropologist, has more recently written of
a shift from “folk society” to “urban society.” Emile Durkheim saw social evolution largely as a process of evergreater division of labor. Ibn-e-Khaldun looked at the cyclical process of change in the form of societies from
nomadic (Al-badawi) to sedentary (Al-hadari). These researchers discuss the forces that produce changes as
well as the characteristics of each form of society. The historical evidence collected by researchers from
different sources about different societies supports the whole discussion.
Forms of economic systems: Karl Marx examined the forms of economic systems progressing historically
from primitive to feudal to capitalistic. All history, he wrote in this context, was a history of class struggle – the
“haves” struggling to maintain their advantages and the “have-nots” struggling for a better lot in life. Looking
beyond capitalism, Marx saw the development of a „classless” society. In his opinion the economic forces
have determined the societal system.
Not all historical studies in the social sciences have had this evolutionary flavor. Some social scientific
readings of the historical record, in fact point to grand cycles rather than to linear progression (Ibn-e-Khaldun,
P. Sorokin).
Economic forms and ideas: In his analysis of economic history, Karl Marx put forward a view of economic
determinism. That is, he felt that economic factors determined the nature of all other aspects of society.
Without denying that economic factors could and did affect other aspects of society, Max Weber argued that
economic determinism did not explain everything. Indeed, Weber said, economic forms could come from noneconomic ideas. In his research in the sociology of religion, Weber examined the extent to which religious
institutions were the source of social behavior rather than mere reflection of economic conditions. His most
noted statement of this side of the issue is found in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. John
Calvin, a French theologian, was an important figure in the Protestant reformation of Christianity. Calvin
thought that God had already decided the ultimate salvation or damnation of every individual; this idea is called
predestination. Calvin also suggested that God communicated his decisions to people by making them either
successful or unsuccessful during their earthly existence.
God gave each person an earthly “calling” – an occupation or profession – and manifested his or her success
or failure through that medium. Ironically, this point of view led Calvin‟s followers to seek proof of their coming
salvation by working hard, saving for economic success.
In Weber‟s analysis, Calvinism provided an important stimulus for the development of capitalism. Rather than
“wasting” their money on worldly comforts, the Calvinists reinvested it in economic enterprises, thus providing
the capital necessary for the development of capitalism. In arriving at this interpretation of the origin of
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 98
capitalism, Weber researched the official doctrines of the early Protestant churches, studied the preaching of
Calvin and other church leaders, and examined other historical documents.
In three other studies, Weber conducted detailed analyses of Judaism, and the religions of China and India.
Among other things, Weber wanted to know why capitalism had not developed in the ancient societies of
China, India, and Israel. In none of the three religions did he find any teaching that would have supported the
accumulation and reinvestment of capital – strengthening his conclusion about the role of Protestantism in
that regard.
Logic of Historical-Comparative Research
Confusion over terms reigns H-C research. Researchers call what they do historical, comparative or historicalcomparative, but mean different things. The key question is: Is there a distinct historicalcomparative method
and logic, or is there just social research that happens to examine social life in the past or in several societies?
Some researchers use positivist, quantitative approach to study historical or comparative issues, while others
rely on qualitative approach.
Quantitative approach:
Positivist researchers reject the idea that there is a distinct H-C method. They measure variables, test
hypotheses, analyze quantitative data, and replicate research to discover generalizable laws that hold across
time and societies. They see no fundamental distinction between quantitative social research and historicalcomparative research. They apply quantitative research techniques, with some minor adjustments, to study
the past or other cultures.
The researcher can focus on the issue in one society few societies or multiple societies.
The researcher can focus on the issue in one time in the past or examine the issue across many
years/periods in the past.
The researcher can focus on the issue in the present or a recent past period.
The researcher‟s analysis could be based primarily on quantitative data or qualitative data.
Nevertheless, the debate continues.
H-C researchers sometimes use time-series data to monitor changing conditions over time, such as data on
population, crime rates, unemployment, infant mortality rates, and so forth. The analysis of such data
sometimes requires sophistication for purposes of comparability. In case the definitions of the concept vary,
it becomes difficult to make comparisons. The definitions not only could vary across nations but also these
could vary within the same country over time (In Pakistan the definition of literacy changed from what it was
in first population census of 1951 and what we had later on).
Qualitative approach:
There are no easily listed steps to follow in the analysis of historical data. Max Weber used the
German term verstehen –“understanding” – in reference to an essential quality of research in behavioral
sciences. He meant that the researcher must be able to take on, mentally, the circumstances, views, and
feelings of those being studied to interpret their actions appropriately.
The historical-comparative researcher must find patterns among the voluminous details describing the subject
matter of study. Often this takes the form of what Weber called ideal types: conceptual models composed of
the essential characteristics of the phenomena. Thus, for example, Weber himself conducted lot of research
on bureaucracy. Having observed numerous bureaucracies, Weber detailed those qualities essential to
bureaucracies in general: jurisdictional areas, hierarchically structured authority, written files, and so on.
Weber did not merely list those characteristics common to all bureaucracies he observed. Rather, he needed
to understand fully the essentials of bureaucratic operation to create a theoretical model of the “perfect” (ideal
type) bureaucracy.
A distinct, qualitative historical-comparative research differs from the positivist approach.
Historicalcomparative researchers who use case studies and qualitative data may depart from positivist
approach. Their research is an intensive investigation of a limited number of cases in which the social meaning
and context are critical. Case studies even in one nation can be very important. Without case studies, scholars
“would continue to advance theoretical arguments that are inappropriate, outdated, or totally irrelevant for a
specific region”.
Historical-comparative researcher focuses on culture (patterns of behavior), tries to see through the eyes of
those being studied, reconstructs the lives of the people studied, and examines particular individuals or
groups.
A distinct H-C approach borrows from ethnography and cultural anthropology, and some varieties of H-C are
close to “thick description” in their attempt to recreate the reality of another time or place.
A Distinct Historical-Comparative Approach
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 99
A distinct historical-comparative research method avoids the excesses of the positivist and interpretive
approaches. It combines sensitivity to specific historical or cultural contexts with theoretical generalization.
Historical-comparative researches may use quantitative data to supplement qualitative data and analysis. The
logic and goals of H-C research are closer to those of field research than to those of traditional positivist
approaches.
Similarities to Field Research:
First, both H-C research and field research recognize that the researcher‟s point of view is an avoidable part
of research. Both involve interpretation, which introduces the interpreter‟s location in time, place, and worldview. H-C research does not try to produce a single, unequivocal set of objective facts. Rather, it is a
confrontation of old with new or different world-views. It recognizes that the researcher‟s reading of historical
or comparative evidence is influenced by an awareness of the past and by living in the present. Our present
day consciousness of history is fundamentally different from the manner in which the past appeared to any
foregoing people.
Second, both field and H-C research examine a great diversity of data. In both, the researcher becomes
immersed in data to gain an emphatic understanding of events and people. Both capture subjective feelings
and note how every day, ordinary activities signify important social meaning. The researcher inquires, selects,
and focuses on specific aspects of social life from the vast array of events, actions, symbols, and words. An
H-C researcher organizes data and focuses attention on the basis of evolving concepts. He or she examines
rituals and symbols and dramatize culture and investigates the motives, reasons, and justifications for
behaviors.
Third, both field and H-C researchers often use grounded theory. Theory usually emerges during the process
of data collection. Both examine data without beginning with fixed hypotheses. Instead, they develop and
modify concepts and theory through a dialogue with the data, then apply theory to reorganize evidence.
[Historically grounded theory means that concepts emerge from the analytic problem of history: ordering the
past into structures, conjectures and events. History and theory can thus be simultaneously constructed.]
Fourthly, both field and H-C research involve a type of translation. The researcher‟s meaning system usually
differs from that of people he or she studies, but he or she tries to penetrate and understand their point of
view. Once the life, language, and perspective of the people being studied have been mastered, the researcher
“translates” it for others who read his or her report.
Fifth, both field and H-C researchers focus on action, process, and sequence and see time process as
essential. Both say that people construct a sense of social reality through actions that occur over time.
Both see social reality simultaneously as something created and changed by people and as imposing a
restriction on human choice.
Sixth, generalizations and theory are limited in field and H-C research. Historical and cross-cultural knowledge
is incomplete and provisional, based on selective facts and limited questions. Neither deduces propositions or
tests hypotheses in order to uncover fixed laws. Likewise replication is unrealistic because each researcher
has a unique perspective and assembles a unique body of evidence. Instead, researchers offer plausible
accounts and limited generalizations.
Unique Features of H-C Research: Despite its many similarities to field research, some important differences
distinguish H-C research. Research on past and on an alien culture share much in common with each other,
and what they share distinguishes them from other approaches.
First, the evidence of H-C research is usually limited and indirect. Direct observation and involvement by a
researcher is often impossible. An H-C researcher reconstructs what occurred from the evidence, but he or
she cannot have absolute confidence in his reconstruction. Historical evidence in particular depends on the
survival of data from the past, usually in the form of documents (e.g., letters and newspapers). The researcher
is limited to what has not been destroyed and what leaves a trace, record, or other evidence behind.
Second, H-C researchers interpret the evidence. Different people looking at the same evidence often ascribe
different meanings to it, so a researcher must reflect on evidence. An understanding of it based on a first
glance is rarely possible. The researcher becomes immersed in and absorbs details about a context. For
example, a researcher examining the family in the past or a distant country needs to be aware of the full
context (e.g., the nature of work, forms of communication, transportation technology, etc.).
Another feature is that a researcher‟s reconstruction of the past or another culture is easily distorted.
Compared to the people being studied, H-C researchers is usually more aware of events occurring prior to the
time studied, events occurring in places other than the location studied, and events that occurred after the
period studied. This awareness gives the researchers a greater sense of coherence than was experienced by
those living in the past or in an isolated social setting. Historical explanation surpasses any understanding
while events are still occurring. The past we reconstruct is more coherent than the past when it happened.
A researcher cannot see through the eyes of those being studied. Knowledge of the present and changes over
time can distort how events, people, laws, or even physical objects are perceived. When the building was
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 10 |
| newly built (say in 1800) and standing among similar buildings, the people living at the time saw it differently |
| Lesson 41 HISTORICAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH (Contd.) |
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Organizing Evidence
As a researcher gathers evidence and locates new sources, he or she begins to organize the data. Obviously,
it is unwise to take notes madly and let them pile up haphazardly. A researcher usually begins a preliminary
analysis by noting low-level generalizations or themes. For example, in a study of revolution, a researcher
develops a theme: The rich peasants supported the old regime. He or she can record this theme in his or her
notes and later assign to significance.
Researcher organizes evidence, using theoretical insights to stimulate new ways to organize data and for new
questions to ask of evidence. The interaction of data and theory means that a researcher goes beyond a
surface examination of the evidence based on theory. For example, a researcher reads a mass of evidence
about a protest movement. The preliminary analysis organizes the evidence into a theme: People who are
active in protest interact with each other and develop shared cultural meanings. He or she examines theories
of culture and movements, then formulates new concept: “oppositional movement subculture.” The researcher
then uses this concept to re-examine the evidence.
Synthesizing
The researcher refines concepts and moves toward a general explanatory model after most of the evidence
is in. Old themes or concepts are discussed or revised, and new ones are created. Concrete events are used
to give meaning to concepts.
The researcher looks for patterns across time or units, and draws out similarities and differences with
analogies. He or she organizes divergent events into sequences and groups them together to create a larger
picture. Plausible explanations are then developed that subsume both concepts and evidence as he or she
organizes the evidence into a coherent whole. The researcher then reads and rereads notes and sorts and
resorts them into piles or files on the basis of organizing schemes. He or she looks for and writes down the
links or connections he or she sees while looking at evidence in different ways.
Synthesis links specific evidence with an abstract model of underlying relations or causal mechanism. A
researcher often looks for new evidence to verify specific links that appear only after an explanatory model is
developed. He or she evaluates how well the model approximates the evidence and adjusts it accordingly.
Historical-comparative researchers also identify critical indicators and supporting evidence for themes or
explanations. A critical indicator is unambiguous evidence, which is usually sufficient for inferring a specific
theoretical relationship. Researchers seek these indicators for key parts of an explanatory model. Indicators
critically confirm a theoretical inference and occur when many details suggest a clear interpretation.
Writing a Report
Combine evidence, concepts, and synthesis into a research report. The way in which the report is written is
key in H-C research. Assembling evidence, arguments, and conclusions into a report is always a crucial step;
but more than in quantitative approaches, the careful crafting of evidence and explanation makes or breaks
H-C research. A researcher distills mountains of evidence into exposition and prepares extensive footnotes.
She or he weaves together evidence and arguments to communicate a coherent, convincing picture to
readers.
Data and Evidence in Historical context
Historical-comparative researchers draw on four types‟ historical evidence or data:
1) Primary sources;
2) Secondary sources;
3) Running records; and
4) Recollections.
Traditional historians rely heavily on primary sources. H-C researchers often use secondary sources or the
different data types in combination.
1. Primary Sources: The letters, diaries, newspapers, movies, novels, articles of clothing, photographs, and
so forth are those who lived in the past and have survived to the present are the primary sources. They
are found in archives (a place where documents are stored), in private collections, in family closets, or in
museums. Today‟s documents and objects (our letters, television programs, commercials, clothing, and
automobiles) will be primary sources for future historians. An example of a classic primary source is a
bundle of yellowed letters written by a husband away at war to his wife and found in a family closet by a
researcher.
Published and unpublished written documents are the most important type of primary source. Researchers
find them in their original form or preserved in microfilm or on film. They are often the only surviving record of
the words, thoughts, and feelings of people in the past. Written documents are helpful for studying societies
and historical periods with writing and literate people. A frequent criticism of written sources is that elites or
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 10
2
those in official organizations largely wrote them; thus the views of the illiterate, the poor, or those outside
official social institutions may be overlooked.
The written word on paper was the main medium of communication prior to the widespread use of
telecommunications, computers, and video technology to record events and ideas. In fact, the spread of forms
of communication that do not leave a permanent physical record (e.g., telephone conversation), and which
have largely replaced letters, written ledgers, and newspapers, make the work of future historians difficult.
Potential Problems with Primary Sources: The key issue is that only a fraction of everything written or used
in the past has survived into present. Moreover, whatever is survived is nonrandom sample of what once
existed.
H-C researchers attempt to read primary sources with the eyes and assumptions of a contemporary who lived
in the past. This means “bracketing,” or holding back knowledge of subsequent events and modern values. “If
you do not read the primary sources with an open mind and an intention to get inside the minds of the writings
and look at things the way they saw them, you are wasting time.” For example, when reading a source
produced by a slaveholder, moralizing against slavery or faulting the author for not seeing its evil is not
worthwhile. The H-C researcher holds back moral judgments and becomes a moral relativist while reading
primary sources. He or she must think and believe like subjects under study, discover how they performed in
their own eyes.
Another problem is that locating primary documents is a time consuming task. A researcher must search
through specialized indexes and travel to archives or specialized libraries. Primary sources are often located
in dusty, out-of-the-way room full of stacked cardboard boxes containing masses of fading documents. These
may be incomplete, unorganized, and various stages of decay. Once the documents or other primary sources
are located, the researcher evaluates them subjecting them to external and internal criticism.
External criticism means evaluating the authenticity of a document itself to be certain that it is not a fake or
a forgery. Criticism involves asking: Was the document created when it is claimed to have been, in the place
where it was supposed to be, and by the person who claims to be its author? Why was the document produced
to begin with, and how did it survive? Once the document passes as being authentic, a researcher uses
internal criticism, an examination of the document‟s contents to establish credibility. A researcher evaluates
whether what is recorded was based on what the author directly witnessed or is secondhand information.
Many types of distortions can appear in primary documents. One is bowdlerization – a deliberate distortion
designed to protect moral standards or furnish a particular image. For example, photograph is taken of the
front of a building. Trash and empty bottles are scattered all around the building, and the paint is faded. The
photograph, however, is taken of the one part of the building that has little trash and is framed so that the trash
does not show; dark room techniques make the faded paint look new.
2. Secondary Sources: Social researchers often use secondary sources, the books and articles written by
specialist historians and other researchers, as an evidence of past conditions. It has its own limitations.
Potential Problems with Secondary Sources: The limitations of secondary historical evidence include
problems of inaccurate historical accounts and lack of studies in areas of interest. Such sources cannot be
used to test hypotheses. Post facto explanations cannot meet positivist criteria of falsifiability, because few
statistical controls can be used and replication is not possible.
The many volumes of secondary sources present a maze of details and interpretations for an H-C researcher.
He or she must transform the mass of specialized descriptive studies into an intelligible picture. This picture
needs to be consistent with the reflective of the richness of the evidence. It also must bridge the many specific
time periods and locals. The researcher faces potential problems with secondary sources.
One problem is reading the work of historians. Historians do not present theory-free, objective “facts.” They
implicitly frame raw data, categorize information, and shape evidence using concepts. The historian‟s
concepts are a mixture drawn from journalism, language of historical actors, ideologies, Philosophy, everyday
language in the present, and social science. Most lack a rigorous definition, are vague, are applied
inconsistently, and are not mutually exclusive, nor exhaustive.
Second problem is that historian‟s selection procedure is not transparent. They select some information from
all possible evidence. From the infinite oceans of facts historian selects those, which are significant for his
purpose. Yet, the H-C researcher does not know how this was done. Without knowing the selection process,
a historical-comparative researcher must rely on the historian‟s judgments, which can contain biases.
A third problem is in the organization of the evidence. Historians organize evidence as they write works of
history. They often write narrative history. This compounds problems of undefined concepts and the selection
of evidence. In the historical narrative, the writer organizes material chronologically around a single coherent
“story.” The logic is that of a sequence of unfolding action. Thus, each part of the story is connected to each
other part by its place in the time order of events. Together all the parts form a unity or whole. Conjecture and
contingency are the key elements of the narrative form. The contingency creates a logical interdependency
between earlier and later elements.
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 10 |
| With its temporal logic, the narrative organization differs from how the social researchers create explanations. |
| Lesson 42 FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION |
MUHAMMAD IMRAN 10
4
about the resident concerned, and then start discussing among them to come up with the exact identification
of the resident. As an outcome of this discussion they would guide the visitor to reach the destination. This is
quite a common feature in a folk society (village, neighborhood in a city) where we may start talking with a
couple of persons and others come and join the conversation. This is an example of informal focus group
discussion, which is built upon the social networks that operate in a natural setting. These social networks
include both kinsfolk and other neighbors. In some cases the participants may be the local decision makers.
In research, focus group discussions (FGD) are a more formal way of getting groups of people to discuss
selected issues. A focus group discussion is a group discussion of 6-12 persons guided by a facilitator, during
which group members talk freely and spontaneously about a certain topic. There may be some disagreement
about the exact number of participants in the discussion, as one comes across variations in numbers (6 to10,
6 to12, 6 to15, 8 to10, 5 to 7) in different books on research methods. The trend has been toward smaller
groups due to some problems with the larger groups, which like:
In a bigger group each participant‟s speaking time is substantially restricted. Dominant/submissive
relationships are almost inevitable.
Frustration or dissatisfaction among group members is likely to result because of some members‟
inability to get a turn to speak. This produces lower quality and quantity of data.
Participants are often forced into long speeches, often containing irrelevant information, when they get
to speak only infrequently.
The tendency for side conversations between participants increases.
In contrast, smaller group sessions are felt to provide greater depth response for each participant. The group
is often more cohesive and interactive, particularly when participants are professionals, such as physicians or
pharmacists.
The key factor concerning group size is generally the of group purpose. If the purpose of the group is to
generate as many ideas as possible, a larger group may be most useful. If the purpose of the group is to
maximize the depth of expression from each participant, a smaller group works better.
The Purpose of FGD
The purpose of an FGD is to obtain in-depth information on concepts, perceptions, and ideas of the group. An
FGD aims to be more than a question-answer interaction (Focus group interview is different). Here the idea is
that group members discuss the topic among themselves.
Formal Focus Groups
Formal groups are formally constituted, that is these are organized in advance by inviting the selected
individuals to participate in the discussion on a specific issue. They are structured groups brought together in
which the participants are expected to have similar background, age, sex, education, religion, or similar
experiences. Similarity in background is likely to make them comfortable where they could express their
viewpoint frankly and freely. If the big boss and his junior officer working in an organization together participate
in an FGD, the junior officer may not be able to express his or her opinion freely in the presence of his/her
boss. Similarly, in some situations the children may experience some inhibitions in expressing their views on
a sensitive issue in the presence of their parents. A lot depends on the kind of issue that is to be discussed.
The group is guided by a moderator/facilitator. The participants address a specific issue (talk freely, agreement
or disagreement among them) within a specified time in accordance with clearly spelled out rules of procedure.
Designing a Focus group Study
As with other approaches to studying social phenomena, designing a focus group study requires careful
thought and reflection. Given that focus groups can be used for a variety of purposes within social research,
the design of focus group study will depend on its purpose. At one extreme, FGD is used at the exploratory
stage of the study (FGD may help in the identification of variables, formulation of questions and response
categories) and at the other extreme, when qualitative information is needed on issues about which the
researchers have substantial background knowledge and a reasonable grasp of the issues. Here we are
focusing on the latter type of design.
How to conduct FGD?
The following guideline may be provided for conducting FGD.
1. Preparation:
Selection of topic, questions to be discussed: It is appropriate to define and clarify the concepts to be
discussed. The basic idea is to lay out a set of issues for the group to discuss. It is important to bear in mind
that the moderator will mostly be improvising comments and questions within the framework set by the
guidelines. By keeping the questions open-ended, the moderator can stimulate useful trains of thought in the
participants that were not anticipated.
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 10 |
| Selecting the study participants: Given a clear idea of the issues to be discussed, the next critical step in |
| Lesson 43 FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (Contd.) |
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Date, time, and place:
Names and characteristics of participants:
General description of the group dynamics (level of participation, presence of a dominant participant,
level of interest):
Opinions of participants, recorded as much as possible in their own words, especially for key
statements: and
Vocabulary used, particularly in focus group discussions that are intended to assist in developing
questionnaire or other material as stipulated under the topic.
It is highly recommended that a tape/video recorder (with permission) be used to assist capturing information.
Even if a tape/video recorder is used, notes should be taken as well, in case the machine malfunctions and
so that information will be available immediately after the session.
A supplementary role for the recorder could be to assist the facilitator (if necessary) by drawing his/her
attention to:
Missed comments from participants, and
Missed topics (the recorder should have a copy of the discussion guide, key probe questions during
the FGD).
If necessary, the recorder could also help resolve conflict situations that facilitator may have difficulty handling.
Number and duration of sessions: The number of focus group sessions to be conducted depends upon
project needs, resources, and whether new information is still coming from the sessions (that is, whether
contrasting views from various groups in the community are still emerging).
One should plan to conduct at least two different focus group discussions for each subgroup (for example two
for males and two for females).
For duration, a focus group session typically lasts up to an hour and a half. Generally the first session with a
particular type of group is longer than the following ones because all of the information is new. Thereafter, if it
becomes clear that all the groups have the same opinion on particular topics, the facilitator may be able to
move the discussion along more quickly to other topics that still elicit new points of view.
3. Analysis of Results
After each focus group session, the facilitator and the recorder should meet to review and complete
the notes taken during the meeting. This is also the right moment to evaluate how the focus group went
and what changes might be made when facilitating future groups.
A full report of the discussion should be prepared that reflects the discussion as completely as possible
using the participants‟ own words. List the key statements, ideas, and attitudes expressed for each
topic of discussion.
After the transcript of the discussion is prepared, code the statements right away, using the left margin?
Write comments in the right margin. Formulate additional questions if certain issues are still unclear or
controversial and include them in the next FGD.
Further categorize the statements for each topic, if required. Compare answers of different subgroups
(e.g., answers of young mothers and answers of mothers of above childbearing age in the FGD on
changes in weaning practices).
The findings must be recorded in coherent manner. For example, if young women in all focus group
discussions state that they start weaning some 3-6 months earlier than their mothers did and the
women above childbearing age confirm this statement, one is likely to have a solid finding. If findings
contradict each other, one may need to conduct some more focus group discussions or bring together
representatives from two different subgroups to discuss and clarify the differences.
Summarize the data in a matrix, diagram, flowchart, or narrative, if appropriate, and interpret the
findings.
Select the most useful quotations that emerged from the discussions to illustrate the main ideas.
4. Report Writing
Start with a description of the selection and composition of the groups of participants and a commentary
on the group process, so the reader can assess the validity of the reported findings.
Present the findings, following a list of topics and guided by the objective(s) of the FGD. Include
quotations whenever possible, particularly for key statements.
Uses of Focus Group Discussions
The primary advantage of focus groups is its ability to quickly and inexpensively grasp the core issues
of the topic. One might see focus group discussions as synergistic i.e. the combined effort of the group
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will produce a wider range of information, insights, and ideas than will the accumulation of separately
secured responses of a number of individuals. Even in non-exploratory research, focus group
discussions produce a lot more information far more quickly, and at less cost than individual interviews.
As part of exploratory research, focus group discussions help the researcher to focus on the issue and
develop relevant research hypotheses. In the discussions the relevant variables are identified, and
relationships are postulated. Once the variables are identified, the same focus group discussions help
in the formulation of questions, along with the response categories, for the measurement of variables.
Focus group discussion is an excellent design to get information from non-literates.
Focus groups discussions are a good means to discover attitudes and opinions that might not be
revealed through surveys. This is particularly useful when the researcher is looking at the controversial
issue, and the individual might be able to give his opinion as such but not discuss the issue in the light
of other viewpoints. In focus group discussions there is usually a snowballing effect. A comment by
one often triggers a chain of views from other participants.
Focus group discussions are well accepted in the folk communities, as this form of communication
already exists whereby the local communities try to sort out controversial issues.
Focus group discussions generate new ideas, questions about the issues under consideration. It may
be called serendipity (surprise ideas). It is more often the case in a group than in an individual interview
that some idea will drop out of the blue. The group also affords the opportunity to develop the idea to
its full significance.
Focus group discussions can supplement the quantitative information on community knowledge,
attitude, and practice (KAP), which may have already been collected through survey research.
Focus group discussions are highly flexible with respect to topic, number of participants, time schedule,
location, and logistics of discussion.
Focus group discussions provide a direct link between the researcher and the population under study.
In fact most of the focus group discussions are held close to people‟s places of living and work. It helps
in getting the realistic picture of the issue directly from the people who are part of it.
For some researchers, focus group discussions may be a fun. They enjoy discussing the issues directly
with the relevant population.
Limitations
Results of the focus group discussions cannot usually be used for generalization beyond the population
from where the participants in FGD came. One important reason being the lack of their
representativeness about other populations.
It is often seen that participants usually agree with the responses from fellow members (for different
reasons). Without a sensitive and effective facilitator, a single, self-appointed participant may dominate
the session. Researchers have to be cautious when interpreting the results.
The moderator may influence focus group discussion and may bias the information.
Focus group discussions may have limited value in exploring complex beliefs of individuals, which they
may not share in open discussion.
It is possible that focus group discussions may paint a picture of what is socially acceptable in the
community rather than what is actually occurring or is believed. The picture may be given of what is
ideally desirable and not what is really in practice. Participants may like to project a good image of their
community to strangers; hence the information may be highly contaminated.
CASE STUDY
Case study is a comprehensive description and analysis of a single situation or a number of specific situations
i.e. cases. It is an intensive description and analysis of a case. Researchers often use qualitative approach
to explore the case in as rich a detail as possible. The examples could be a case study of a highly successful
organization, a project (Orangi Pilot Project, Karachi), a group, a couple, a teacher, and a patient. In a way it
is more like a clinical approach to study the case in detail.
If the researcher is looking at highly successful organization then he may have to look into all the factors that
may have contributed to its success. The factors may relate to the availability of the financial resources, the
management, the work environment, work force, the political atmosphere, and many more. All these factors
may be considered as different dimensions for studying the organization. Similarly, one may do the case study
of a happily married couple.
Data Sources
Usually the following sources are suggested:
Naturalistic observations (ethnographic studies)
Interviews
Life histories
Tests (Psychological, clinical)
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| In most of the cases the data sources may depend upon the nature of the case under investigation. If we are |
| Lesson 44 REPORT WRITING |
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5. Table of contents
6. Executive summary
2.Main body
1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Results
4. Conclusions and recommendations
5. References
3.Appended parts
1. Data collection forms (questionnaires, checklist, interview guide, other forms)
2. Detailed calculations
3. General tables
4. Other support material
5. Bibliography, if needed
Let us now look at each one of the parts of the report.
Prefatory Parts
Title Fly Page: Only the title appears on this page. For the most formal reports, a title fly page precedes the
title page. Most of the reports don‟t have it. May be it is more like the dustcover of some books.
Title Page: The title page should include four items: the title of the report, the name(s) of the person(s) for
whom the report was prepared, the name(s) of person(s) who prepared it, and the date of release or
presentation.
The title should be brief but include three elements: (1) the variables included in the study, (2) the type of
relationship among the variables, and (3) the population to which the results may be applied. Redundancies
such as “A report of,” “A discussion of,” and “A study of” add length to title but little else. Single-word titles are
also of little value.
Addresses and titles of recipients and writers may also be included.
(For thesis follow the format as prescribed by the relevant university)
Letter of Transmittal: This element is included in relatively formal and very formal reports. Its purpose is
to release or deliver the report to the recipient. It also serves to establish some rapport between the reader
and the writer. This is one part of the formal report where a personal, or even a slightly informal, tone should
be used. The transmittal letter should not dive into report findings except in the broadest terms. This letter may
be like:
Virtual University Lahore
December 15, 2006
Mr. K. M. Khalil
Vice President for Marketing
………………………….
………………………….
Subject: Report on Employee Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment
Dear Mr. Khalil,
Here is a report on Employee Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment. The report was prepared
according to your authorization letter of April 15, 2006.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
We are grateful to you for your cooperation in this important study.
Sincerely,
……………..
……………..
Letter of Authorization: This is a letter to the researcher approving the project, detailing who has
responsibility for the project and indicating what resources are available to support it. The letter not only shows
who sponsored the research but also delineates the original request.
Researcher would not write this letter. In many situations, referring to the letter of authorization in the letter of
transmittal is sufficient. If so, the letter of authorization need not be included in the report. In case the letter
has to be included, exact copy of the original may be reproduced.
Table of Contents: A table of contents is essential to any report. It should list the divisions and subdivisions
of the report with page references. The table of contents is based on the final outline of the report, but it should
include first-level subdivisions. For short reports it is sufficient to include only the main divisions. If the report
includes many figures and tables, lists of these should immediately follow the table of contents. If lots of
abbreviations have been used in the report, give a list of abbreviations, alphabetically arranged, after the list
of figures/tables.
Executive Summary: It is vital part of the report. Studies have indicated that most managers always read
a report‟s summary, whereas only a minority read the rest of the report. Thus the only chance a writer may
have to make an impact be in summary.
An executive summary can serve two purposes. It may be a report in miniature – covering all the aspects in
the body of the report, but in abbreviated form. Or it may be a concise summary of the major findings and
conclusions, including recommendations. On the whole the summary briefly tells why the research project was
conducted, what aspects of the problem were considered, what the outcome was, and what should be done.
The summary should be written only after the rest of the report is completed. It represents the essence of the
report. Two to three pages are generally sufficient for a properly condensed summary. (For very big reports
which run into number of volumes, like the one finds in the feasibility reports of big projects, the summary may
be very big.) The summary should be written to be self-sufficient. In fact, it is not uncommon for a summary to
be detached from the report and circulated on its own.
The summary contains four elements:
The objectives of the report are stated, including the most important background and specific purposes
of the project.
The major results are presented. The key results regarding each purpose should be included.
The conclusions that are based on the results. There should be logical interpretation of the results
which could lead to the stated conclusions.
The recommendations or suggestions for action, which are based on the conclusions. The
recommendations must logically emerge from the results.
In many cases managers prefer not to have recommendations included in the report or summary. The
consultant may have to go by the demand of the client.
Note: In many reports you may see that the executive summary comes first which is followed by the table of
contents.
For students writing their thesis, in place of executive summary, they write an abstract of their thesis. This
abstract is usually of one or two paragraphs. Abstract has information on the topic, the research problem, the
basic findings, and any „unusual‟ research design or data collection features.
Main Body
The main body constitutes the bulk of the report. It includes: Introduction, Methodology, Results, Conclusions,
and Recommendations of the study.
Introduction: The introduction prepares the reader for the report by describing the parts of the project:
background material, the problem statement, and research objectives of the study. In most projects,
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introduction can be taken from the research proposal submitted earlier by the consultant. The proposal itself
was based on the terms of reference (TOR) supplied by the client.
Background could help in looking at the magnitude of the problem. It may include the results of exploration
from an experience survey, focus group discussion, and secondary data from literature review. The
background includes definitions, qualifications and assumptions. It gives the reader the information needed to
understand the remainder of research report.
Problem statement contains the need for the research project. The problem is usually represented by the
research question raised by the client. It explains why the project was worth doing.
Research objectives address the purpose of the project. These objectives may be research questions and
associated investigative questions. In correlational or causal studies, the hypothesis statement may be
included. At the end of the study the researcher may see the extent to which these objectives have been
addressed.
For Thesis: After introduction, for students writing their thesis, it is recommended that they should have
three separate chapters on review of literature, theoretical framework, and hypothesis or research question
along with the operationalization of variables. These chapters may be in line with the steps in research that
we discussed as part of the research process.
Methodology: Technical procedures for carrying out the study must be explained in a manner appropriate
for the reader. It may be useful to supplement the material in this section with more detailed explanation in the
appendix. This part of the report should address seven topics:
1. Research design: Was the study exploratory, descriptive, or causal? A specific strategy was used to
conduct this study. Why was this particular design suited to the study?
2. Data collection methods: Did the data come from primary sources or secondary sources? How the
primary data were collected – survey, experiment, observation? It is possible that multiple techniques
may have been used – all these have to be explained.
3. Sample design: What was the target population? What sampling frame was used? What type of
sampling was used? What was the selection procedure used?
4. Instrument(s) of data collection: What instrument(s) of data collection was (were) used? Why a
particular instrument was selected? Include a copy of each instrument in the appendix.
5. Fieldwork/data collection: How many and what type of fieldworkers were used? What training and
supervision did they receive? How was the quality control assured?
6. Analysis: How was the analysis carried out? How was the data reduction handled? Tell about the
scoring scheme used. Outline the statistical methods applied for the analysis of the data.
7. Limitations: No report is perfect, so it is important to indicate the report‟s limitations. If there were
problems with non-response error or sampling procedures, they should be discussed. The discussion of
limitations should avoid overemphasizing the weaknesses. Its aim should be to provide a realistic basis
for assessing the results.
Results: The presentation of results will occupy the bulk of the report. This section presents in some logical
order those findings of the project that bear on the objectives. The results should be organized as a continuous
narrative, designed to be convincing but not oversell the project. Summary tables and charts should be used
to aid the discussion. Tables and charts may serve as points of reference to the data being discussed and
free the prose from an excess of facts and figures. Comprehensive or detailed charts should be reserved for
the appendix.
Conclusions and recommendations: The last part of the body of the report presents the conclusions
and recommendations based on results. Findings state facts; conclusions represent inferences drawn from
findings. A writer is sometimes reluctant to make conclusions and leaves the task to the reader. Avoid this
temptation when possible. As the researcher, you are the one best informed on the factors that critically
influence the findings and conclusions.
Recommendations emerge out of conclusions. These are actually suggestions for action in an applied
research. The researcher may present several alternatives with justification. In academic research, the
recommendations are often further study suggestions that broaden or test understanding of the subject area.
The conclusions and recommendations are presented here in more detail than in the executive summary, with
whatever justification is needed.
References: All citations used in the study must be given by arranging them alphabetically by the last name
of the author.
For your thesis
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| For your thesis the following outline of chapters is suggested: |
| Lesson 45 REFERENCING |
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Pennathur, A., Leong, F. T., & Schuster, K. (Eds.) (1998). Style and substance of thinking. New York: Wilson
Press.
Here after the names of the editors, the word editors is abbreviated as “Eds.” And put in parentheses. Other
instructions remain the same.
Chapter in an edited book
This is an article written by single or multiple authors and is printed in the edited book.
Riley, T., & Brecht, M. L. (1998). The success in mentoring process. In R. Williams (Ed.) Mentoring and career
success. pp. 129-150. New York: Wilson Press.
We start with the name(s) of the author(s); same instructions. Then the title of the article published in this
edited book. The title is in small letters except the letter of the first word. It is not to be put in italics or in bold.
Give full stop at the end of the title. Then we tell about the book and its editor in which it was published. Here
the editor‟s name does not start with the last name, but is kept straight as initials and then the last name. It is
followed by the title of the book which is in italics. After the title we specify the pages of the book on which this
article appeared. Rest is the same i.e. place of publication and the publisher.
Journal Article
Jean quart, S., & Peluchette, J. (1997). Diversity in the workforce and management models. Journal of Social
Work Studies, 43 (3), 72-85.
The title of the article is in small letters. The name of the journal is in italics. Such professional journals are
well known in the academic community, therefore, the place of publication and the publisher is not given.
Instead, its volume and number in the volume is given. All the issues published in one year are one volume.
There could be number of issues in a volume. Both the volumes and issues are numbered. In this example 43
is the volume and 3 given in the parentheses is the number in this volume. It is followed by the pages on which
this article was published.
Conference Proceedings publications
Gardezi, H. N. (2005). Population policy of Pakistan. In Z. Sathar (Ed.), Proceedings of the Third Conference
on Research and Population, (pp. 100-107). Islamabad: Population Council.
Doctoral Dissertation
Chaudhary, M.A. (2004). Medical advances and quality of life. Unpublished doctoral Dissertation, Virtual
University
Paper presented at conference
Qureshi, Q. A. (2005, May 16). Practical tips for efficient management. Paper presented at the annual meeting
Entrepreneurs, Lahore.
It is possible that the proceeding of a conference have not been published. The researcher got hold of paper
that was presented at the conference and wanted to do it citation. Here along with the year of the conference,
the date is also given. Title of the paper is in italics. Then give some information about owners of the
conference, followed by place where the conference was held.
Unpublished Manuscript
Kashoor, M. A. (2005). Training and development in the ‘90s. Unpublished manuscript, Virtual University.
Newspaper Article
The GM Pact. (2005, May 16). The Dawn, p. 4.
Referencing Electronic Sources
Ahmad, B. (2005). Technology and immediacy of information. [On line]
Available http://www.bnet.act.com
Just giving the site on the internet is not sufficient. It is necessary that the name of the author and title of the
writing should be given. Internet site is actually in place of the publisher and the place of publication.
Referencing and quotation in Literature review
Cite all references in the body of the report using the author-year method of citation; that is, the last name of
the author(s) and the year of publication are given at the appropriate places. Examples of this are as follows:
Rashid (2005) has shown …
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| In recent studies of dual earner families (Khalid, 2004; Hameed, 2005) it has been …. |
| Lesson 46 QUALITATIVE TECHNIQUES |
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often through a process of testing out preconceptions. This process begins with deciding on a research
question. It is then necessary to conduct a literature review and to decide on a research design which
addresses the research question. Decisions made at this point include considering what kind of data will be
collected, how they will be collected, who will be invited to participate and how the data will be analyzed.
Researchers working in the social sciences: psychology, sociology, anthropology etc., interested in studying
human behavior and the social world inhabited by human beings, found increasing difficulty in trying to explain
human behavior in quantifiable, measurable terms. Measurements tell us how often or how many people
behave in a certain way, so if a research question involves exploring how much or how often something
happens, it‟s probably appropriate to use quantitative methods. Qualitative research attempts to broaden
and/or deepen our understanding of how things came to be the way they are in our social world. If the research
question involves exploring how people experience something, or what their views are, exploring a new area
where issues are not yet understood or properly identified (e.g. before developing questionnaire items),
assessing whether a new service is implementable, looking at „real-life‟ context, your team probably needs to
discuss using qualitative methodology.
So, qualitative research is a form of social inquiry that focuses on the way people interpret and make sense
of the experiences and the world in which they live. This kind of research has an aim to understand the social
reality of individual, group and cultures. Researchers use qualitative research to explore the behavior,
experiences, perspectives and feeling of people and what lies at the core of their lives. The basis of qualitative
research lies in the interpretive approach of social reality and in the description of lived experience of human
beings.
Qualitative researchers contend that it is virtually impossible to understand why someone did something or
why something happened in an organization without talking to people about it. Imagine if a police tried to solve
a serious crime without being able to talk to the suspects or witnesses. If the police were restricted to using
only quantitative data, almost no crimes would be solved. Image if lawyers and judges were not allowed to
question or cross-examine witnesses in court, the validity and reliability of any court decision would be thrown
into serious doubt. So, likewise, qualitative researchers argue that if you want to understand people`s
motivations, their reasons, their actions, and the context for their beliefs and actions in an in-depth way,
qualitative research is best.
Comparison of Qualitative and Quantitative Research:
The goal of qualitative research is to gain an in depth understanding and explanation of some particular social
phenomenon typically done by attempting to understand the lived experiences of the participants and how
they construct meaning and make sense of their experiences. Frequently, the data collection is done by
interviewing; however, an understanding of the social phenomenon and personal lived experiences of
individuals might be gained via non-intrusive qualitative approaches in which the researcher might use texts,
journals, written narratives, observations, or other unobtrusive measures to examine the traces of humans
and how they were affected by some ideological, social, psychological, legal, political, and/or technological
factors. Qualitative research seeks to answer questions that focus on the meaning, essence, and interpretation
of social phenomena with as little disruption to the natural setting as possible. Frequently central qualitative
research questions begin with "How?" and/or "Why?" questions, but can begin with a "What?" question as
well.
Quantitative research, on the other hand, explores descriptive analysis of characteristics through variables or
answers questions about the relationships among variables (values assigned to characteristics or factors) with
the purpose of measuring, explaining, predicting, confirming, validating, testing, or controlling phenomena.
Quantitative research studies generally end with a summation of the verification process, which is a
confirmation or disconfirmation of the hypotheses tested via deductive reasoning. Conclusively, the aim of
qualitative research is discovery, while the aim of quantitative research is verification.
Qualitative Research Methods:
All qualitative researchers need to decide how they are going to investigate the social world. How are you
going to answer your research questions? For example, do you need to study organization in public sector,
consumers, or managers? Do you want to study one case or many?
Although there are various definitions in the literature but simple a research method can be defined as a
strategy of enquiry. A research method is a way of finding empirical data about the world. Each research
method builds on a set of underlying philosophical assumptions and the choice of research method influences
the way in which the researcher collect the data. Specific research methods also imply different skills and
research practices.
Five qualitative research methods are discussed in this subject as discussed by John W. Creswell in his book.
Following are the five qualitative research methods:
1. Narrative Research.
2. Phenomenology.
3. Grounded Theory.
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| 4. Ethnography. |
| Lesson 47 NARRATIVE RESEARCH |
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| have a clear understanding of the context of the individual's life. It takes a keen eye to identify in the source |
| Lesson 48 PHENOMENOLOGY |
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| how the participants experienced the phenomenon. Moustakas (1994) calls this step horizonalization. Next, |
| Lesson 49 GROUNDED THEORY |
| MUHAMMAD IMRAN 11 teachers, a few social workers), but typically it is large, involving many people who interact over time (teachers |
| community, region, nation, and global world. In my experience, this matrix is seldom used in grounded theory |
| Lesson 50 ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH |
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As both a process and an outcome of research (Agar, 1980), ethnography is a way of studying a culturesharing group as well as the final, written product of that research. As a process, 'ethnography involves
extended observations of the group, most often through participant observation, in which the researcher is
immersed in the day-to-day lives of the people and observes and interviews the group participants.
Ethnographers study the meaning of the behavior, the language, and the interaction among members of the
culture-sharing group.
Types of Ethnographies
There are many forms of ethnography, such as a confessional ethnography, life history, autoethnography,
feminist ethnography, ethnographic novels, and the visual ethnography found in photography and video, and
electronic media. Two popular forms of ethnography will be emphasized here: the realist ethnography and the
critical ethnography.
The realist ethnography is a traditional approach used by cultural anthropologists. It reflects a particular stance
taken by the researcher toward the individuals being studied. Realist ethnography is an objective account of
the situation, typically written in the third person point of view and reporting objectively on the information
learned from participants at a site. The ethnographer remains in background as an omniscient reporter of the
"facts." The realist also reports objective data in a measured style uncontaminated by personal bias, political
goals, and judgment.
For many researchers, ethnography today employs a "critical" approach (Carspecken & Apple, 1992; Madison,
2005; Thomas, 1993) by including in the research an advocacy perspective. The critical ethnography is a type
of ethnographic research in which the authors advocate for the emancipation of groups marginalized in society
(Thomas, 1993). Critical researchers typically are politically minded individuals who seek, through their
research, to speak out against inequality and domination (Carspecken
& Apple, 1992). For example, critical ethnographers might study schools that provide privileges to certain types
of students, or counseling practices that serve to overlook the needs of underrepresented groups. A critical
ethnographer will study issues of power, empowerment, inequality, inequity, dominance, repression,
hegemony, and victimization.
Procedures for Conducting an Ethnography
As with all qualitative inquiry, there is no single way to conduct the research in ethnography. The approach
taken here includes elements of both realist ethnography and critical approaches. The steps to conduct
ethnography are as follows:
Determine if ethnography is the most appropriate design to use to study the research problem. Ethnography
is appropriate if the needs are to describe how a cultural group works and to explore the beliefs, language,
behaviors, and issues such as power, resistance, and dominance.
Identify and locate a culture-sharing group to study. Typically, this group is one that has been together for
an extended period of time, so that their shared language, patterns of behavior, and attitudes have merged
into a discernable pattern. This may also be a group that has been marginalized by society. Because
ethnographers spend time talking with and observing this group, access may require finding one or more
individuals in the group who will allow the researcher in-a gatekeeper or key informants (or participants).
Select cultural themes or issues to study about the group. This involves the analysis of the culture-sharing
group. The themes may include such topics as enculturation, socialization, learning, cognition, domination,
inequality, or child and adult development.
To study cultural concepts, determine which type of ethnography to use. Perhaps how the group works
needs to be described, or the critical ethnography may need to expose issues such as power, hegemony,
and to advocate for certain groups. A critical ethnographer, for example, might address an inequity in society
or some part of it, use the research to advocate and call for changes, and specify an issue to explore, such
as inequality, dominance, oppression, or empowerment.
Gather information where the group works and lives. This is called fieldwork. Gathering the types of
information typically needed in an ethnography involves going to the research site, respecting the daily lives
of individuals at the site, and collecting a wide variety of materials. Field issues of respect, reciprocity,
deciding who owns the data, and others are central to ethnography. Organize types of ethnographic data
into observations, tests and measures, surveys, content analysis, interviews, elicitation methods,
audiovisual methods, spatial mapping, and network research.
Forge a working set of rules or patterns as the final product of this analysis. The final product is a holistic
cultural portrait of the group that incorporates the views of the participants (emic) as well as the views of the
researcher (etic). It might also advocate for the needs of the group or suggest changes in society to address
needs of the group.
Challenges
Ethnography is challenging to use for the following reasons. The researcher needs to have grounding in
cultural anthropology and the meaning of a social-cultural system as well as the concepts typically explored
by ethnographers. The time to collect data is extensive, involving prolonged time in the field. In many
ethnographies, the narratives are written in a literary, almost storytelling approach, an approach that may limit
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| the audience for the work and may be challenging for authors accustomed to traditional approaches to writing |
| Lesson 51 CASE STUDY RESEARCH |
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| in which the researcher details such aspects as the history of the case, the chronology of events, or a day |
| Lesson 52 THE FIVE APPROACHES COMPARED |
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| Lesson 53 DATA-COLLECTION IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH |
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Observation may be obtrusive or unobtrusive. A researcher may simply sit in the corner of a school playground
and observe how students behave during breaks. He may also stand by the school gate and observe how
students behave at the school gate. Such cases of observation may be seen as unobtrusive. In other cases,
the researchers may not apply any stimuli, but their presence per se may have some influence on the scene.
The most common example in this category is classroom observation. Although the researcher may just sit
quietly at the corner of a classroom, the presence of the researcher may change the classroom climate. It is,
nonetheless, still observation.
Observation is a basic technique used in almost all qualitative research. Even if other methods or techniques
are used, the researcher remains the most essential "sensor" or "instrument" and hence observation always
counts (McCracken, 1988:18-20). For example, when interviewing is used, a qualitative researcher also takes
into account the tonic or facial expressions of the informant, because they help interpret the verbal responses.
Such expressions are only sensed by observation. If the interview is done in the field, then the surroundings
of the interview site also provide meaningful data for the research. The surroundings can only be depicted
through observation. Hence observation is indispensable in almost all occasions of qualitative research.
Participant Observation
Participant observation is perhaps the most typical of qualitative research. Some authors even use participant
observation as a synonym for ethnographic research. Different writers may have slightly different definitions
of participant observation. The following description by Fetterman is perhaps the most agreeable to most
researchers.
Participant observation is immersion in a culture. Ideally, the ethnographer lives and works in the community
for six months to a year or more, learning the language and seeing patterns of behavior over time. Long-term
residence helps the researcher internalize the basic beliefs, fears, hopes and expectations of the people under
study. (1989:45)
Nonparticipant Observation
Strictly speaking, nonparticipant observation involves merely watching what is happening and recording events
on the spot. In the qualitative orientation, because of the non-intervention principle, strict nonparticipant
observation should involve no interaction between the observer and the observed.
Goetz and LeCompte assert that in the strict sense "nonparticipant observation exists only where interactions
are viewed through hidden camera and recorder or through one-way mirror" (1984: 143).
Interviewing
Interviewing is widely used in qualitative research. Compared with observation, it is more economical in time,
but may achieve less in understanding the culture. The economy in time, however, makes ethnographic
interviewing almost the most widely used technique in policy-related research.
Interviewing is trying to understand what people think through their speech. There are different types of
interviews, often classified by the degrees of control over the interview. Along this line, we shall briefly
introduce three types of interviewing: informal interviewing, unstructured interviewing, semistructured
interviewing, and formally structured interviewing.
Informal Interviewing
Informal interviewing entails no control. It is usually conversations that the researcher recalls after staying in
the field. It is different from "observation" in that it is interactive. That is, the informant speaks to the researcher.
Unstructured Interviewing
Unstructured interviewing applies minimum control over the informant and the responses. Unstructured
interviewing is formal interviewing. There is no disguise that the occasion is just a friendly chat. Hence, there
is always a question to answer, or a topic to discuss. However, the informants have the liberty to choose their
own scope, depth, emphases, length and pace of the response. At times, the informant may even choose to
deviate from the original question or topic.
Semi-structured Interviewing
Semi-structured interviewing is interviewing with an interview guide (Bernard, 1988:205). Semistructured
interviewing follows all the principles of unstructured interviewing, except that the informants are not expected
to move too far beyond the scope d
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1. Which of the following tasks are not accomplished by theoretical
framework?
a) Elaborates the relationship among the variables
b) Explains the logic underlying the relationship between the variable
c) Describe the nature and direction of the relationships among the
variables
d) Relates the previous studies (Lesson10 page30)
2. Debriefing involves
a) All of the given options (Lesson14-page43)
b) Description of the hypothesis
c) Post study sharing of the results
d) Explanation of any deception
3. All of the following are the purposes of descriptive research except:
a) The desire to know “what”
b) The desire to know “where”
c) The desire to know “why” (Lesson 3-page7)
d) The desire to know “how”
4. Which of the following is most helpful in defining research problem?
a) Hypothesis
b) Preliminary data collection
c) Descriptive research
d) Theoretical framework
5. A clear, precise, and succinct statement of the question or issue that is to be
investigated with the goal of finding an answer or solution is called
a) Statement of purpose
b) Problem statement (Lesson11-page34)
c) Research statement
d) Teaching statement
6. How different theories address an issue comes under:
a) Self-study review
b) Context review
c) Historical review
d) Theoretical review (Lesson8-page27)
7. If one variable depends upon another variable is termed as:
a) None of the given option
b) Extraneous
c) Dependent
d) Independent
8. Which of the following can be a reason to prefer research over making
random decisions?
a) Research help to verify revelations
b) Research helps to make informed decisions (Lesson1-page2)
c) Research helps to make subjective decisions
d) Research make study reliable even it involves researcher’s biases
9. Which of the following best describe a concept?
a) A means of gathering data
b) A key idea/ a key word
c) A source of data
d) A sub-section in the theoretical framework
10.Which of the following is the type of research that helps to find the
magnitude of the issue as well as its solutions?
a) Basic research
b) Field research
c) Casual research
d) Applied research (Lesson1-page2)
11.Which of the following is NOT an unethical issue?
a) Invoicing irregularities
b) Avoiding legal liability
c) Misrepresenting results
d) Seek approval for research (Lesson13-page41)
12.The application of the scientific method to the study of business problems
is called
a) Inductive reasoning
b) None of the given options
c) Business research (Lesson11-page34)
d) Grounded theory
13.After you locate a source, you should write down all details of the
reference, except;
a) Full names of the authors
b) Titles
c) Volumes
d) Price (Lesson9-page29)
14.Descriptive and Explanatory Research are the classifications of research on
the basis of:
a) Use of the research
b) Time dimension
c) Techniques used
d) Purpose of the research (Lesson3-page6)
15.Literature review helps the researchers to--------- the findings of the other
people's research
a) Learn
b) Compare
c) Replicate
d) All of the above (Lesson8-page26)
16.Which of the following is/are the objectives of the literature review
a) To learn from others and stimulate new ideas
b) Identification of variables
c) Helps in developing a theoretical framework
d) All of the above (Lesson8-page26)
17.If a researcher is trying to explain the emerging phenomenon by
identifying its causes, it is referred to as which of the following
characteristics of scientific research?
a) Empirical
b) Deterministic (Lesson2-page4)
c) Rationalism
18.Which of the following is an example of abstract concept?
a) School
b) Height
c) Racism (Lesson5-page16)
d) Age
19.A Literature review that summarizes what is known at a point in time; is
known as:
a) Narrative literature review
b) Systematic literature review
c) Integrative review (Lesson8-page27)
d) Historical review
20.Which of the following is included in research proposal?
a) Data analysis
b) Results
c) Literature review (Lesson11-page34)
d) Conclusions section
21.Which of the following is not included in the introduction section of a
research proposal?
a) Background of the study
b) Objectives
c) Sampling techniques (Lesson11-page35)
d) Significance
22.Which of the following are the basic research methods of data collection
except
a) Survey
b) Communication analysis
c) Descriptive analysis (Lesson12-page37)
d) Experiment
23.Scientific research focuses on which of the following
a) Objectivity
b) Subjectivity
c) Duplication
d) Intuition
24.The introduction section of a research proposal contains information about
a) Background of the study
b) Significance of the study
c) Objectives of the study
d) All of the above (Lesson11-page35)
25.Which of the following is not an assumption of science?
a) There are reoccurring patterns in the world
b) Events happen of preceding causes
c) We can discover solutions to problems of interest
d) Theoretical explanation must agree with common sense
26.Hypothesis refers to----------
a) The outcomes of an experiments
b) A conclusion drawn from an experiment
c) A form of bias in which the subject tries to outguess the experimenter
d) A tentative statement about the relationship
27.The independent variable is;
a) The variable manipulated in order to observe its effects
b) The variable that is measured
c) The free spirited variable
d) A confounding variable
28.Abstract is -----------
a) A detail of a scholarly publication’s location
b) A detailed background of the researchers
c) A short summary of a scholarly journal article
d) A detailed procedure to conduct a research
29.----------- allows the largest number of statistical techniques to be
conducted
a) Nominal
b) Categorical
c) Ordinal
d) Interval/ ratio
30.Theory is full of all of the following options, except:
a) Assumptions
b) Guess (Lesson16-p50)
c) Abstract concepts
d) Relationships
31.All of the following options describes the research except:
a) A scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem
b) A careful analysis of data gathered firsthand
c) A casual inquiry to seek required information to resolve problems
(Lesson1-p2)
d) A systematic inquiry to seek required information to resolve problems
32.The process of converting abstract concept into measurable factors is
called
a) Operationalization (Lesson15-p48)
b) Conceptualization
c) Socialization
d) Induction
33.What does a good literature review look like?
a) To organize common finding or arguments together
b) To logically statements or findings
c) To note discrepancies or weaknesses in the present studies
d) All of the given options (Lesson9-p29)
34.Which of the following variables may have some effects upon a dependent
variable but yet is not an independent variable?
a) None of these
b) Extraneous variable
c) Independent variable
d) Dependent variable
35.Data collection techniques includes all excepts
a) Survey
b) Experiment
c) Data analysis
d) Observation (Lesson11-p35)
36.Descriptive research can be either
a) Qualitative
b) Quantitative
c) Both Qualitative and Quantitative
d) None of the given options
37.While conducting a literature review, the researcher engages in
a) An evaluation of the library’s location
b) An evaluation of the library’s electronic sources
c) An evaluation of the literature
d) An evaluation of the library
38.Which of the following are considered the steps of the research process
except
a) Broad problem area
b) Derivative analysis (Lesson12-p36)
c) Problem definition
d) Theoretical framework
39.Integrative review helps to
a) Increase the reader's confidence
b) Place a specific project in the big picture
c) Traces the development of an issue over time
d) Summarizes what is known at a point in time (Lesson8-p27)
40.The following journal article would be an example of. research; "The
benefits of florescent lighting on production in a factory setting"
a) Applied
b) Longitudinal
c) Basic
d) Evaluation
41.Stipulation of logical relationship between any two variables means elect
the correct option
a) Formulation of a proposition (Lesson10-p31)
b) Fragmentation of proposition o
c) Inventory of variables
d) None of the above
42.The scientific researcher operates at two levels: one is at the abstract level
of concepts and other one is the--------- of variables.
a) None of the given options
b) Conceptual level
c) Hypothetical level
d) Empirical level (Lesson4-p12)
43.Every research project should begin with: select the correct option
a) An understanding of the overall conclusion that will be o drawn
b) A decision about the research methodology to be used
c) A statement of the research
d) A decision about the data gathering methods to be used
44.Which of the following options can be a reason to conduct research?
a) To generate theories
b) Not to argue conflicting studies
c) To encourage duplicate other's work as it is
d) To rely on researcher's intuition
45.The "Verifiable" characteristic of scientific research deals with:
a) The results' replication (Lessson2-p4)
b) None of the given options
c) The results' application
d) The results' interpretation
46.A physiological reaction test was given to 100 participants.
Instead of recording reaction time of every participant, the researcher
choose to record their position as compare to other participants, i.e. the
fastest participant was coded as 1 and the slowest as 100. This is an
example of a/an--------- variable.
a) Interval
b) Nominal
c) Ratio
d) Ordinal
47.Which of the following often focuses on generating new theories?
a) Inductive method
b) Deductive method
c) Hypothesis method
d) None of the given option
48.Which of the following is not a source of Literature review?
a) Scholarly journals
b) Experiment (Lesson9-p27)
c) Dissertations
d) Bibliographical indexes
49.A statement concerned with the logical relationship among |the concepts is
called----------
a) Abstract
b) Theory
c) Proposition (Lesson4-p13)
d) Research statement
50.If a measure is consistent over multiple occasions, it has:
a) Inter-rater reliability
b) Construct validity
c) Internal validity
d) Test-retest reliability
51.A literature review requires a/an;
a) Planning
b) Clear writing
c) Logical Structure
d) All of the given options (Lesson9-p29)
52.A study conducted by Nestle to find out the impact of organizational
citizenship behavior on the performance of its employees is a study of
which level
a) Societal level
b) Macro level
c) Micro level
d) Broad level
53.Identify the option that can be a disadvantage of cross-sectional research.
a) It is usually more costly than longitudinal research
b) It cannot capture the change process (Lesson3-p9)
c) Researchers have to locate exact people for cross-sectional o research
d) It is usually more costly and complex than longitudinal o research
54.Adoption of codes of behavior by a group of people is called
a) Societal norms (Lesson13-p41)
b) Procedural norms
c) Operational norms
d) None of the above
55.An elementary or basic form of research, in which little is known about the
situation and previous theories or ideas do not apply, is known as:
a) Explanatory Study
b) Descriptive Study
c) Exploratory Study (Lesson3-p6)
d) Cohort Study
56.A good review of the literature increases a readers confidence in the
researchers
a) Professional competence
b) Ability
c) Background
d) All of the above (Lesson8-p26)
57.Which of the following is a concept?
a) All of the given options (Lesson4-p11)
b) Human resources management
c) Leadership
d) Motivation
58.Which of the following is not helpful in problem definition?
a) Discussion with professionals
b) Hypothesis
c) Literature survey
d) Preliminary data collection
59.Methodological review helps to
a) Increase the reader’s confidence
b) Place a specific project in the big picture
c) Traces the development of an issue over time
d) Point out how methodology varies by study (Lesson8-p27)
60.O Which of the following variables is undesirable because it adds error to
an experiment?
a) None of these
b) Independent
c) Extraneous
d) Dependent
61.Which of the following is not included in research proposal?
a) Problem Statement
b) Research Design
c) Results (Lesson11-p34)
d) Bibliography
62.What research is?
a) A lab experiment
b) A report
c) A systematic Enquiry (Lesson1-p1)
d) A survey
63.A Research methods are applicable in all of the following domains
EXCEPT
a) Health care
b) Business
c) Government offices
d) Imaginary worlds (Lesson1-p1)
64.According to scientific method, which of the following is Not an empirical
reality?
a) Emotions
b) Gods reward for good deeds (Lesson2-p3)
c) Satisfaction
d) None of the given options
65.The split-half method is used as a test of
a) External validity
b) Internal consistency of measures (Lesson58-p18)
c) Inter-observer consistency
d) Constancy
66.Why do you need to review the existing literature?
a) All of the given options
b) To meet the requirement of word-count
c) To find out what is already known about our area of interest
d) To make o good impression
67.The selection of a method for data collection depends on which of the
following factors
a) Objectives of the research
b) Available data sources
c) Cost of obtaining the data
d) All of the above (Lesson12-p37)
68.What is a hypothesis?
a) A prediction of a relationship between certain variables (Lesson7-p22)
b) An experiment that tests certain predictions
c) An independent variable
d) A dependent variable
69.identify the option that explains a logical relationship among the concepts
a) Events
b) Variables
c) Speculations
d) Propositions (Lesson4-p13)
70.O A research proposal is a document that presents a-----------to the
reviewers for evaluation
a) Manipulation check
b) Pilot testing
c) Plan for a project (Lesson11-p34)
d) Recommendation
71.Which of the following activities is not included in debriefing?
a) Explanation of any deception
b) Post study result sharing
c) Obtaining informed consent (Lesson14-p43)
d) Description of the purpose of study
72.Which of the following is a type of applied research?
a) Formulated research
b) Impact assessment research (Lesson3-p9)
c) Cross sectional research
d) Longitudinal research
73.Reviewers have more confidence about the successful completion of a
project if the proposal is
a) Well. Written
b) Well organized
c) Carefully planned
d) All of the above (Lesson11-p34)
74.Research process is usually treated as which involve several clearly
defined steps
a) Sequential (Lesson12-p36)
b) Non-sequential
c) Vertical
d) Non-Vertical
75.Self-study review helps to
a) Increase the reader’s confidence (Lesson8-p26)
b) Place a specific project in the big picture
c) Traces the development of an issue over time
d) Summarizes what is known at a point in time
76.The scientific method is preferred over other ways of knowing because t is
more
a) Reliable
b) Systematic
c) Accurate
d) All of the given options
77.A researcher should practice which of the following guideline while
conducting a research project?
a) All of the given option (Lesson13-p42)
b) Obtain informed consent
c) Explain respondent rights and protections
d) Explain study benefits
78.A research participant might get suffered from which of the following
forms of herm during the research study?
a) Physical injury
b) Stress
c) Anxiety
d) All of the above
79.A research study, in which the unit of analysis remains same at specific
interval over a longer period of time s known
a) Time series Study (Lesson3-p10)
b) Cohort Study
c) Panel Study
d) None of the given options
80. The least powerful scale is ------- scale.
a) Interval
b) Nominal (Lesson17-p53)
c) Ratio
d) Ordinal
81.Research questions are crucial because they will
a) Guide your decisions about what data to collect and from where
b) Help you decide which research area interests you
c) Ensure that your findings have external validity
d) Prevent you from thinking about research strategies
82. It is important to plan and structure the literature review before
a) Outlining the aim of the research
b) Writing the literature review (Lesson9-p29)
c) Conceptualizing the research statement/question
d) Developing a conceptual framework
83.A framework that plans the action of research project is known as
a) Research design (Lesson12-p37)
b) Hypothesis
c) Objective
d) Theoretical framework
84.The details of a reference should include
a) Full name of Author/s
b) Title
c) Volume, issue and page number
d) All of the above
85.A variable that modifies the original relationship between independent and
dependent variable is known as
a) Dependent variable
b) Intervening variable
c) Moderating variable (Lesson6-p20)
d) Independent variable
86.The total number of basic features that should be incorporated in a
theoretical framework are
a) 10
b) 8
c) 6 (lesson10-p31)
d) 4
87.A logical relationship between two or more variable, expresses in the form
of a testable statement is known as
a) Hypothesis (lesson7-p22)
b) Variable
c) Statement
d) Statistic
88.In which way, a ratio scale measurement differs from an interval
measurement?
a) It measures larger or smaller scores on some underlying dimension
b) It implies the existence of an absolute zero value (Lesson17-p54)
c) It requires the mutual exclusivity of all cases
d) It requires that exhaustiveness is applied to all observations
89.A study conducted by Lever brothers to find out ‘impact of job satisfaction
on employees’ performance
a) Micro level
b) Macro level
c) Broad level
d) Societal level
90.A researcher can develop a theoretical framework on the basis of ----------
a) A single theory
b) More than one theory
c) Both A and B
d) None of above
91.Basic and applied research are the classifications of research on the basis
of
a) Use of research (Lesson3-p8)
b) Time dimension
c) Techniques used
d) Purpose of the research
92.What is ordinal data?
a) Ordinary data
b) Well behave data
c) Ranked data
d) Numbers
93.Bias is defined as;
a) The distortion of responses based on gender, ethnicity, race, or
language
b) A lack of validity
c) A lack of reliability
d) A poor interpretation of a student's score
94.All of the following options describe the research EXCEPT:
a) A scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem
b) A careful analysis of data gathered firsthand
c) A casual inquiry to seek required information to resolve problems
(Lesson1-p2)
d) A systematic inquiry to seek required information to resolve problems
95.All of the given options are helpful to develop conceptual definition,
EXCEPT
a) Everyday understanding of concept
b) Search in the dictionary
c) Look into the review of literature
d) Make elements from dimensions
96.Another name of dimensions is
a) Indicators
b) Hypotheses
c) Theoretical framework
d) Statements
97.Problem statement is a ----------- statement of the question or issue that is
to be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or solution
a) Clear
b) Precise
c) Succinct
d) All of the above (Lesson11-p34)
98.What can we determine if a test has good validity?
a) It produces the same result when it is given at different o times to the
same group of people
b) It produces the same result no matter which version of the o test is used
c) It measures what it is supposed to measure (Lesson18-p55)
d) All of the questions on it can be answered accurately by the o subject
99.-------- scale only assigns numbers to objects to classify the objects
according to the characteristic of interval
a) Ratio
b) Nominal (Lesson17-p53)
c) Interval
d) Dichotomous
100.The most difficult sources to locate are
a) Dissertations
b) Policy reports and presented papers (Lesson9-p28)
c) Government document
d) Scholarly books
101.Citation is ---------
a) A detail of a scholarly publication
b) A short summary of a scholarly journal article
c) A detailed background of the researchers
d) A detailed procedure to conduct a research
102.Which of the following is not a technique to narrow down the broad
problem area?
a) Doing a literature survey
b) Ask questions from the knowledgeable person
c) Consider topic in specific context
d) Decide about the sample
103.Which of the following research approaches is least concerned with the
generalizability of finding?
a) Qualitative approach
b) Quantitative approach
c) Quantitative approach
d) Quantitative approach
104. Logical process in which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logical
generalization of known facts is called
a) Induction
b) Deduction
c) Duplication
d) Empiricism
105.An interval scale contains----------
a) More than 3 points
b) A fixed zero
c) A fixed amount of difference categories
d) Gaps between categories
106.Which of the following approaches is usually used in quantitative
research?
a) Deductive approach
b) Inductive approach
c) Communication approach
d) Historical approach
107.A step-by-step process by which the research project is conducted and
completed is known as
a) The process of gathering data for a research project
b) The process of developing research ideas
c) The process of describing research
d) The research process (Lesson12-p36)
108.The “deterministic” characteristic of scientific research deals with
a) All of the given options
b) The results’ confirmation/ refutation
c) The experience/ observation
d) The identification of causes (Lesson2-p4)
109.Which of the following is likely to reduce the validity of a test?
a) Unclear test directions
b) Ambiguous test items
c) Untaught items
d) All of the given options
110.Which of the following is continuous variable?
a) Height
b) Age
c) Blood pressure
d) All of the given options
111.A literature review is built on the assumptions that
a) Knowledge accumulates
b) Learn from and build on what others have done
c) Both A and B (Lesson8-p26)
d) None of the above
112.Which of the following is at the highest level of abstraction?
a) Concept
b) Proposition
c) Theory (Lesson4-p13)
d) Hypothesis
113.Scientific research is a collective effort of many researchers who
a) Share their results with one another
b) Pursue knowledge as a community
c) Both A and B (Lesson8-p26)
d) None of the above
114.Which of the following is not a feature of theoretical framework?
a) Making an inventory of variable
b) Specify the direction of relationship
c) Presenting finding (Lesson10-p31)
d) Making an inventory of propositions
115.The first step in development of theoretical framework is
a) To make an inventory of variables (Lesson10-p31)
b) To specify the direction of relationship
c) To make an inventory of propositions
d) To arrange these propositions in a sequential order
116.A research that seeks to determines the answers to who, what and how
comes under the domain of----------- research
a) Descriptive (Lesson3-p7)
b) Exploratory
c) Explanatory
d) Empirical
117.Identify the option that explains the idea that knowledge is verifiable by
experience or observation
a) Rationalism
b) Logic
c) Deductive reasoning
d) Empiricism (Lesson2-p3)
118.Which of following considered as a data collection technique?
a) Population
b) Sample
c) Experiment (Lesson11-p35)
d) Data processing
119.-------------------- is the example of concrete concept.
a) Racism
b) Political power
c) Family dissolution
d) Age (Lesson5-p6)
120.Rationalism is the application of:
a) Research solution
b) Logic and arguments (Lesson2-p5)
c) Traditions
d) Previous finding
121.In conducting a literature review; the researcher:
a) Find and read the relevant literature, then the writes a view of the
literature
b) Create a long list of different theories
c) Create a long list of references
d) All the given option
122.------------------------- is a measure in which researcher combines several
distinct indicator of a variable into a single score.
a) Scale
b) Index (Lesson17-p53)
c) Focus group discussion
d) Interview
123.The research design section of the research proposal contain information
about
a) Population
b) Sample
c) Data collection
d) All of above (Lesson11-p35)
124.A researcher can organize a computerized search by
a) Author name
b) Article title
c) Keyword
d) All of above
125.---------------- is not a form of measurement validity
a) Concurrent validity
b) Face validity
c) Conductive validity
d) Convergent validity
126.“Higher level of job satisfaction higher will be the employees,
performance” which type of relationship the movement of variable
determines?
a) Inverse relationship
b) Negative relationship
c) Positive relationship
d) Direct relationship
127.Which of the following is the search strategy for locating literature
review for a research project?
a) All of the given option (Lesson9-p28)
b) Dissertation
c) Scholarly article
d) Scholarly books
128.One of the major hallmarks of scientific research is:
a) Objectivity
b) Intuition
c) Subjectivity
d) Instinct
129.Which of the following must be considered while considered while
conducting a literature review for a research study?
a) All of the given option
b) An analysis and critique of research completed prior to this study
c) A review of the research completed prior to this study
d) Literature that supports and contradicts the researcher’s position
130.What is the basis of the scientific method?
a) To test hypothesis in conditions that are condusive to its success.
b) To formulate a research problem and disprove the hypothesis
c) To formulate a research problem, test the hypothesis in carefully
controlled conditions that challenge the hypothesis
d) To test hypothesis and if they are disproved, they should be
abandoned completely
131.Set parameters to conduct literature review includes
a) How much time you will devote
b) How far back in time you will look
c) The maximum number of research report you will examine
d) All of the above (Lesson9-p28)
132.--------- Variable takes infinite numbers of values.
a) Continuous (Lesson6-p19)
b) Discontinuous
c) Independent
d) Dependent
133.Theoretical framework provides the logical base for developing
a) Hypothesis (Lesson10-30)
b) Manipulation check
c) Analysis
d) None of the above
134.Which of the following are considered as data collection techniques
a) Survey experiment
b) Qualitative techniques
c) All of the above
135.Which of the following is the reason for deception?
a) All of the given options
b) To provide the research design of the study
c) Restrict observation to public behavior only
d) To protect the confidentiality of the sponsor
136.--------- is an example of concrete concept.
a) Racism
b) Political power
c) Family dissolution
d) Age (Lesson5-p16)
137.A reader can easily see and comprehend the theorized relationships
through
a) Venn diagram
b) Schematic Diagram (Lesson10-p31)
c) Tree diagram
d) Pictogram
138.There is no relationship between advertising and sales of product A given
hypothesis is
a) Descriptive hypothesis
b) Correlational hypothesis
c) Null hypothesis (Lesson7-p23)
d) Alternative hypothesis
139.Another name of conceptual definition is
a) Theoretical definition (Lesson15-p48)
b) Operational definition
c) Empirical definition
d) Ambiguous definition
140.Which of the following is true about a concept?
a) All of the given options (Lesson4-p11)
b) An abstract reality
c) A key idea about a process
d) A key idea about any object
141.The organization of concepts in sequence from the most concrete and
individual to the most general
a) One that bears no relation to the underlying concept
b) An abstract, theoretical definition of a concept
c) The degree of abstraction (Lesson5-p16)
d) An operational definition
142.Which of the following types of processes, research falls in?
Ans: A process to discover the truth
143.Which of the following best describes the ethics
Ans: D: A process of reasoning that guides moral choices
144.It is the process of linking the conceptual definition to a specific set of
measurement techniques or procedures
Ans: Operationalization
1. All of the following options describe the
research except:
A casual inquiry to seek required
information to resolve problem
2. Descriptive hypothesis contains
One variable only
3. A system of systematically interrelated
concepts definitions and propositions that are
advanced to explain and predict phenomena
is known as
theory
4. Which of the following is also referred to as
working definition?
Operational definition
5. Which of the following is observe at the
empirical level?
Reality
6. Which type of review tells the reader how a
project fits into the big picture and its
implications for a field of knowledge?
Context review
7. Which of the following variables is
undesirable because it adds error to an
experiment?
None of these
8. The scientific research operates at two level
one is at the abstract level of concepts and
other one is the ------- of variable.
Empirical level
9. What does a good literature review look
like?
All of the given option
10. is the purpose of explanatory research. Ans :
The desire to know “why”
11. A statement concerned with the logical relationships among concepts is called .
Ans : Proposition
12. The scientific researcher operates at two levels: on the abstract level of concepts and on the
other one is the of variables
Ans : Empirical level
13. The Research that is done to examine the findings of someone else by using the “same variables
but with different respondents” comes under which of following .
Ans : Replication
14. meanings attached to a concept create problems of measurement.
Ans : Vague
15. Concepts represent various degree of .
Ans : Abstraction
16. What research is?
Ans : Systematic inquiry
17. Realities that are observable through sensory experiences are said to be:
Ans : Empirical
18. What is Cross-Sectional research .
Ans: The collection of data from more than one case at one moment in time
19. An operational definition is .
Ans : A definition of a concept in terms of specific, empirical measures.
20. In we collect same type of information from different respondents in different times.
Ans: Time series Research
21. In definition, a concept is explained in terms of other concepts.
Ans: Theoretical
22. Research improves the decision-making process by following all important stages EXCEPT: .
Ans: Only relying on personal assumptions
23. Concepts, created and developed for conducting any research study, are: .
Ans: The building blocks of theory
24. Logical Process in which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of
known facts is called.
Ans: Deduction
25. Which of following is a type of applied
research? Ans: Impact Assessment Research
26. If a researcher was studying the use of various instructional approachesto the......... Which type
of research And:
Applied
27. An Elementary or basic form of research, in which little is known about the situation and
previous theories or ideas do not apply, is known as
Ans: Exploratory study
28. Social research helps.
Ans: Improve Public
health
29. Which of following best describes an Operational definition ?
Ans: all of the give above
30. Which of following best describes a Concept?
Ans: A key idea/ a key word
31. Which of following is true about a concept ?
Ans: All of the given options
32. Every Research Project Should Begin
with: Ans: A Statement of the Research?
33. All of the following are the type of Applied Research
EXCEPT: Ans: Formulative Research
34.
35. Operational definition is also Known
as Ans: working definition
36. Which of following is a
concept? Ans: All of the given
options
37. A study conducted by Lever brothers to find out impact of job satisfaction on employees’
performance is studied at:
Ans: Macro Level
38. Which of the following is a procedure agreed upon for translation of a conceptinto
measurement of some kind?
Ans: Operational definition
39. The “Verifiable” characteristic of scientific research deals with:
Ans: All of the given options
40. Which of the following statement is true?
Ans: Theory and research are interrelated
41. According to Empiricism, which of the following is the ultimate source of all our concepts and
knowledge?
Ans: Sensory experience
42. One of the major hallmarks of scientific research is
Ans: Objectivity
43. All of the following are true about theories, except.
Ans: They are tentative until the fact prove them true
44. Rationalism is the application of
Ans: Logic and arguments
45. Which of following refers to abstract concept?
Ans: Racism
46. The “Verifiable” characteristic of scientific research deals with all of the following
EXCEPT Ans: The result interpretation
47. If a researcher is studying the effect of using laptops in his classroom to ascertain theirmerit
and worth; he is likely conducting ..... type of research
Ans: Evaluation Research
48. If a researcher is going to explore a new topic, he is conducting which of following research?
Ans: Formulative
49. Which of following is at the highest level of abstraction?
Ans: Theory
50. Descriptive Research can be either
Ans : Both Quantitative and Qualitative
51. The Organization of concept in sequence from the most concrete and individual to the most
general indicates:
Ans: the degree of abstraction
52. A Researcher is conducting study to find out the reasons why students are not cooperating with
teacher is an example of
Ans: Explanatory Study
53. What is the Basis of the Scientific Method?
Ans: To formulate a Research Problem, test the hypotheses in carefully controlled conditions
54. Which of the following statement does best represent the purpose ofresearch?
Ans: All of the Given Options
55. To explain, predict and control phenomena are the goals of
Ans: The Scientific Method
56. a theory is a coherent set of used as principles of explanation of the apparent relationship
of the certain observed phenomena
Ans: propositions
57. The Scientific method is preferred over other ways of knowing it is more.
Ans: All of the given options
58. Descriptive and Explanatory Are the classifications of research on the basisof
Ans: Purpose of Research
59. Concept is
Ans: Key idea about any object
60. Qualitative and Quantitative Research are the classification of the research on the basis of
Ans: Techniques Used
61. The term “Extrapolation” is better explained by the statement
Ans: Theory Predicts Facts
62. Which of the following is not a function of clearly identified research Questions?
Ans: They make scope of your research as wide as possible?????
63. A study conducted by Pepsi To find out impact of salary On employees turnover is studied at
what level?
Ans: micro
64. Basic research can also be called as-------
Ans: Fundamental Research
65. Research methods Are applicable to all of following domains
Except Ans: Imaginary world
66. Which of the following statement is not true?
Ans: A research proposal is an unorganized and unplanned project
67. A Concept is generalized idea about .
Ans: All of the given options
1. One of the major hallmarks of scientific research is:
Objectivity
Intuition
Subjectivity
Instinct
2. If a researcher was studying the use of various instructional approaches to the
‘‘ multiple intelligences’’ of his students, he is likely to be conducting which
type of research?
Basic
Applied
Evaluation
Grounded theory
3. ‘‘ research methods’’ helps in all of the following ways EXCEPT:
To avoid biasness
To develop analytical skills
To analyze the revelations and intuitions
To convert research concerns into research situations.
4. Self-study review helps to
Increase the readers confidence
Place a specific project in the big picture
Traces the development of an issue over time
Summarizes what is known at a point in time
5. The details of a reference should include
Full name of Author’s
Title
Volume, issue & page number
All of the above
6. According to Empiricism, which of the following is the ultimate source of all
our concepts and knowledge?
Perceptions
Theory
Sensory experience
Logics and arguments
7. Which one of the following is not an assumption of science?
There are reoccurring patterns in the world
Events happen because of preceding causes
We can discover solutions to problems of interest
Theoretical explanations must agree with common sense.
8. If a researcher is going to explore a new topic, he is conducting which of the
following Research?
None of the given options
Explanatory
Descriptive
Formulative
9. A review that only demonstrates familiarity with an area is rarely published
but it often is part of an educational program is which type of review?
Integrative review
Theoretical review
Self-study review
Historical review
10.While conducting a literature review, the researcher engages in:
An evaluation of the library’s location
An evaluation of the library’s electronic sources
An evaluation of the literature
An evaluation of the library
11.Which of the following can be the best possible reason for using a scientific
method to make a decision?
It provides systematic inquiry into the matter
It helps to make decision randomly
It starts each research study from the scratch
It helps researchers to make decisions based on common sense
12.What is the most basic skill required by any researcher?
The ability to source data
The ability to generate ideas for research projects
The ability to understand major philosophical issues and ideas
The ability to calculate statistics
13. Which of the following best describes an operational definition?
All of the given options
It specifies measurement criteria
It specifies testing criteria
It gives meanings to a concept
14.The primary source of communication’s means among researchers is
Scholarly Journals
Government Documents
Media Reports
None of the above
15.Integrative reviews helps to
Increase the readers confidence
Place specific project in the big picture
Traces the development of an issue over time
Summarizes what is known at a point in time
16.In ------------ we collect same type of information from different respondents
in different times.
Cohort study
Time series research
Panel study
Case student
17.A logical relationship between two or more variables, expressed in the from of
a testable statement is known as:
Hypothesis
Variable
Statement
Statistic
18.The ‘Verifiable’ characteristic of scientific research deals with all of the
following EXCEPT;
The results’ interpretation
The results’ repetition
The results’ confirmation/refutation
The results’ replication
19.Hypothesis refers to--------
The outcome of an experiment
A conclusion drawn from an experiment
A forms of basis in which subject tries to outguess the experimenter
A tentative statement about the relationship
20.Theoretical reviews helps to
Increase the reader’s confidence
Compare how different theories address an issue
Traces the development of an issue over time
Summarizes what is known at a point in time
21.Which of the following is a concept
Leadership
Total Quality Management
Human Resource Management
All of the given options
22.The most difficult resource to locate are;
Dissertations
Policy Reports and Presented Papers
Government Documents
Scholarly Books
23.‘high productivity is positively associated with Job commitment’. The given
hypothesis is a (an)
Descripted hypothesis
24.Relational hypothesis can be;
All of the given
Causal or simply correlational
Positive or negative
Non-directional or directional
25.A one tailed hypothesis predicts--------
The future
The lottery result
The frequency of the effect
The direction of the effect
26.--------------explain the logical relationship among the concepts;
Statements
Propositions
Variables
Events
27.What is cross-sectional research?
A study of a particular section of society
A comparison of two or more variable over a long period
The collection of data from more than one casts at one
One that is conducted when environment is uncertain
28.Abstract is -------
A detail of a scholarly publication’s location
A details background of the researchers
A short summery of a scholarly journal article
A detailed procedure to conduct a research
29.Which of the following research approachs is least concerned with the
generalizability of findings?
Qualitative approach
Quantitative approach
30.Dictionary definition can also be named as all of the following, EXCEPT;
Bookish definition
Nominal definition
Conceptual definition
Theoretical definition
31.How a particular issue or theory has evolved over time is studied in;
Self-study literature
Context literature review
Historical literature
Integrative literature review
32.The ‘verifiable’ characteristic of scientific research deals with all of the
following EXCEPT;
The results’ interpretation
The results’ repetition
The results’ confirmation/refutation
The results’ replication
33.Identity the term which is referred to as ‘the confirmation or refutation of the
observation through the scientific method by using sensory experience?’
Verifiable
Observation
Empirical
Cumulative
34.Identify the term which is referred to as the ‘scope of applicability of the
research findings in one organized setting to other settings with the help of
statistic’?
Empirical
Determinism
Rationalism
Statistical generalization
35.Which of the following often focuses on generating new theories?
Inductive method
Deductive method
Hypothesis method
None of the given
36.The operational definition is also known as
Working definition
Nominal definition
Conceptual definition
Dictionary definition
37.The primary source of communication means among researchers is
Scholarly Journals
Government Documents
Media reports
None of the above
38.An operational definition is;
One that bears no relation to the underlying concept.
An abstract, theoretical definition of a concept
A definition of a concept in terms of specific, empirical measures
One that refers to opera singers and their work
39.In ----------- we collect same type of information from different respondents in
different times.
Cohort study
Time series research
Panel study
Case studies
40. If a researcher is going to explore a new topic, he is conducting which
of the following research?
❖ None of the given option
❖ Explanatory
❖ Descriptive
❖ Formulative
41. The application of the scientific method to the study of business problem is
called
❖ Inductive reasoning
❖ None of the given option
❖ Business research
❖ Grounded theory
42.______ is the purpose of Explanatory research.
❖ The desire to know “what”
❖ The desire to know “ Where”
❖ The desire to know “ How”
❖ The desire to know “Why”
43. Citation is_____
❖ A detail of a scholarly publication’s location
❖ A short summery of a scholarly journal article
❖ A detailed background of the researcher
❖ A detailed procedure to conduct a research
44. Dichotomous variables are also known as ______
❖ Intervening variables
❖ Nominal variables
❖ Continuous variables
❖ Extraneous variables
45. The reviewed literature must be.
❖ None of the given option
❖ Relevant to the research project
❖ Readily available
❖ Easily accessible
46.In which of the given research design, same people or group are observed
across various time periods?
❖ Panel study
❖ Cohort analysis
❖ Action research
❖ Time series research
❖
47. Which of the following is NOT a proper way to write a literature review?
❖ Organize common findings or arguments together
❖ List down a series of research reports with a summary of the findings of each
❖ Logically link statements or findings
❖ Address the most important ideas first
48. The study of research methods provides with you the knowledge and skills
you need.
❖ To solve the problem
❖ To improve the decision-making process
❖ To understand the research of others
❖ All of the given options
49. After you locate a source, you should write down all details of the reference,
except;
❖ Full name of the authors
❖ Titles
❖ Volumes
❖ Price
50. Which of the following is a continuous variable?
❖ Height
❖ Age
❖ Blood pressure
❖ All of the given option
51. Plagiarism can be best described as;
❖ Giving credit to the author
❖ Revising the original work done by author
❖ Crediting the other person’s work as your own
❖ Working on ideas presented in an article
52. Which of the following is the basic unit of a theory development?
❖ Task
❖ Concept
❖ Hypothesis
❖ Speculation
53. Identify the option that explains that scientific research operates at the
abstract level.
❖ Reality
❖ Theory
❖ Variable
❖ Construct
54. All of the following are the source of literature review EXCEPT;
❖ Story books
❖ Dissertations
❖ Scholarly articles
❖ Scholarly books
57:A good review of the literature increases a reader's confidence in the
researcher's Select the correct option
Professional competence
Ability
All of the above
58: ------- variable takes infinite number of values
Continuous
Discontinuous
Independent
Dependent
59: A variable that modifies the original relationship between independent and
dependent variable is known as
Dependent variable
Intervening variable
Moderating variable
Independent variable
61: Which of the following often focuses on generating new theories?
Inductive method
Deductive method
Hypothesis method
none of the given options
62:Researcher is supposed to develop a ------- after starting the
specific problem to be studied in an experiment
Theory
Conclusion
Hypothesis
Summary of the data
63:Plagirism can be best described as
Giving cedit to the author
Revising the original work done by author
Crediting the other persons work as your own
Working on ideas presented in an article
64: There is no relationship btwn job satisfaction and the employess turnover rate
ias an example of which of the following
Null hypothesis
Alternate
Correlational
Descriptive
65: Which of the following statement does best represent the purpose of research
All of the given
Creating the architecture for data warehousing
The identification of quality information not its computerized processing
An application of scientific methods to information collection and analysis
66: A model variale is one that
All of the given
Modifies the original relationship
Qualifies the application of a relationship
Makes a relationship meaningless
67:A variable is
Any characteristics of interest that can take on more than one value
Defined as the groups manipulated in experimental research
The complte set of scores we ise in statistical analysis
Completely specified only in observational research
68:logical process in which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logical
generalization of known facts is called
Inductive
Deductive
Duplication
Empiricism
69:Which of the following is true about a concept
All of the given
Ab abstract reality
A key about a process
1. is the purpose of explanatory research.
Ans : The desire to know “why”
2. A statement concerned with the logical relationships among concepts is called .
Ans : Proposition
3. The scientific researcher operates at two levels: on the abstract level of concepts and on
the
other one is the of variables Ans
: Empirical level
4. The Research that is done to examine the findings of someone else by using the “same
variables
but with different respondents” comes under which of following . Ans :
Replication
5. meanings attached to a concept create problems of measurement.
Ans : Vague
6. Concepts represent various degree of .
Ans : Abstraction
7. What research is?
Ans : Systematic
inquiry
8. Realities that are observable through sensory experiences are said to be:
Ans : Empirical
9. What is Cross-Sectional research .
Ans: The collection of data from more than one case at one moment in time
10. An operational definition is .
Ans : A definition of a concept in terms of specific, empirical measures.
11. In we collect same type of information from different respondents in different times.
Ans: Time series Research
12. In definition, a concept is explained in terms of other concepts.
Ans: Theoretical
13. Research improves the decision-making process by following all important stages
EXCEPT: .
Ans: Only relying on personal assumptions
14. Concepts, created and developed for conducting any research study, are: .
Ans: The building blocks of theory
15. Logical Process in which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logical generalization
of known
facts is called.
Ans: Deduction
16. Which of following is a type of applied research?
Ans: Impact Assessment Research
17. If a researcher was studying the use of various instructional approaches to the ……….
Which type of
research And:
Applied
18. An Elementary or basic form of research, in which little is known about the situation and
previous theories or ideas do not apply, is known as
Ans: Exploratory study
B.Ed. 2nd STA 630 Quiz 1 Repeated Questions Solved By
Muddasar Abbas
19. Social research helps.
Ans: Improve Public
health
20. Which of following best describes an Operational definition ?
Ans: all of the give above
21. Which of following best describes a Concept?
Ans: A key idea/ a key word
22. Which of following is true about a concept ?
Ans: All of the given options
23. Every Research Project Should Begin with:
Ans: A Statement of the Research?
24. All of the following are the type of Applied Research
EXCEPT: Ans: Formulative Research
25. Operational definition is also Known
as Ans: working definition
26. Which of following is a
concept? Ans: All of the given
options
27. A study conducted by Lever brothers to find out impact of job satisfaction on
employees’
28.
performance is studied at:
Ans: Micro Level
29. Which of the following is a procedure agreed upon for translation of a concept into
measurement of some kind?
Ans: Operational definition
30. The “Verifiable” characteristic of scientific research deals with:
Ans: All of the given options
31. Which of the following statement is true?
Ans: Theory and research are interrelated
32. According to Empiricism, which of the following is the ultimate source of all
our concepts and
knowledge?
Ans: Sensory experience
33. The application of scientific method to the study of business problems is called
Ans: Businesses Research
34. One of the major hallmarks of scientific research is
Ans: Objectivity
35. All of the following are true about theories, except.
Ans: They are tentative until the fact prove them true
36. Rationalism is the application of
Ans: Logic and arguments
37. Which of following refers to abstract concept?
Ans: Racism
38. The “Verifiable” characteristic of scientific research deals with all of the
following EXCEPT
Ans: The result interpretation
39. If a researcher is studying the effect of using laptops in his classroom to ascertain their
merit
and worth; he is likely conducting. ............ type of research
Ans: Evaluation Research
40. If a researcher is going to explore a new topic, he is conducting which of following
research?
Ans: Formulative
41. Which of following is at the highest level of abstraction?
Ans: Theory
42. Descriptive Research can be either
Ans : Both Quantitative and Qualitative
43. The Organization of concept in sequence from the most concrete and individual to the
most
general indicates:
Ans: the degree of abstraction
44. A Researcher is conducting study to find out the reasons why students are not
cooperating with
teacher is an example of
Ans: Explanatory Study
45. What is the Basis of the Scientific Method?
Ans: To formulate a Research Problem, test the hypotheses in carefully controlled conditions
46. Which of the following statement does best represent the purpose of research?
Ans: All of the Given Options
47. To explain, predict and control phenomena are the goals of
Ans: The Scientific Method
48. a theory is a coherent set of used as principles of explanation of the apparent
relationship
of the certain observed phenomena Ans:
propositions
49. The Scientific method is preferred over other ways of knowing it is more.
Ans: All of the given options
50. Descriptive and Explanatory Research are the classifications of research on the basis of
Ans: Purpose of Research
51. Concept is
Ans: Key idea about any object
52. Qualitative and Quantitative Research are the classification of the research on the basis
of
Ans: Techniques Used
53. The term “Extrapolation” is better explained by the statement
Ans: Theory Predicts Facts
54. Which of the following is not a function of clearly identified research Questions?
Ans: They make scope of your research as wide as possible?????
55. A study conducted by Pepsi To find out impact of salary On employees turnover is
studied at
what level?
Ans: micro
56. Basic research can also be called as-------
Ans: Fundamental Research
57. Research methods Are applicable to all of following domains Except
Ans: Imaginary world
58. Which of the following statement is not true?
Ans: A research proposal is an unorganized and unplanned project
59. A Concept is generalized idea about .
Ans: All of the given options
60. All of the following are the purposes of descriptive research EXCEPT
Ans: The desire to know “why”
M.ZAHID
mzahidly@gmail.com
EDUSTA630
GRAND
QUIZ
2020
1. Concepts like people subjective feeling
• Empirical
2. approaches is usually used in quantitative research
• detective approach
3. measurement of Reliability refers to the
• accuracy of the scores
4. realities is observed through sensory experience are said to be
• Empirical
7. which of the following is the reason for deception
• All of above
8. Context review help to
• summarize what is known at a point in time
9. Which of the following represents a good qualitative problem stateme
10. nt
• Conveys a sense of emergent design
11. If our research was today the use of various instructional approaches to the multiple
intelligences of
his students he is likely to be conducted in which type of research
• Applied
12. which of the following is / are the basic feature of a theoretical framework
• Make an Inventory of propositions
13. A Literature review is built on the assumption that
• Both a and b
14. Which helps the researcher to capture the intensity of variable is called
• Scale
15. Which of the following is also referred to as working definition
• operational definition
16. Hypothesis refer to
• a tentative statement about the relationship
17. Which of the following is not a method of narrowing a topic
• Pilot testing
18. research methods help in all of the following ways except
• to avoid business
19. Research that seeks to determine the answer to who, what, where and how comes
under the
domain of ...........research
• Descriptive
20. the definition of a behavioral factor to allow measurement of it is known as
• an operational definition
21. The reviewed literature must be
• relevant to the research project
22. The introduction section of a research proposal contains information about all of the
following
except
• design of the study
23. A clear, precise, and succinct statement of the question are issued that is to be
investigated with
the goal of finding and answer our solution is called
• problem statement
24. A system of systematically interrelated concepts definition and proposition that are
• advanced to explain and Predict phenomena is known
as
25. rationalism is the application of
• logic and arguments
26. The detail of reference should include all except
• volume, issue & page number
27. There is no relationship between advertising and sales of product A given hypothesis is
• Null hypothesis
28. an operational definition is
• A Definition of concept in term of specific empirical
measures
29. There is no relationship between job satisfaction and the employees to Turnover rate in
an example
of which of the following Hypothesis
• null hypothesis
30. operational define a concept involves a series of
• Steps
31. All of the following are purposes of descriptive research accept
• the desire to know why
32. which among the following is type of applied research
• impact assessment research
33. Identify the term which is referred to as the conformation are dissertation of the
observation
through the scientific method by using sensory experience
• Empirical
34. Research study in which the unit of analysis remains same at specific interval over a
longer period of
time is known as
• time series study
35. integrative review helps to
• Summarizes what is known at a point in time
36. Which of the following tasks is not accomplished by the theoretical framework
• Describes the nature and direction of the relationship
among the variables
37. “Higher the level of job satisfaction, higher will be the employees’ performance.” which
type of relationship the moment of variable determines?
• Positive relationship
38. is the purpose explanatory research
• the desire to know why
39. The most critical areas of an article to read are
• methods and results
40. Apart from that deception is unethical what is the other important disadvantage of
deceiving people
• all of the given options
41. logical relationship among the factors identified in the literature review is called
• Theoretical framework
42. The higher the motivation the higher the efficiency is an example of...........hypothesis
• explanatory hypothesis
43. scientific research focuses on which of the following
• Objectives
44. methodological review helps to
• Place a scientific project in the big picture
45. The verifiable characteristics of scientific research deals with
• the results replication
46. research in his questionnaire asked nature of business respondents are working in
weather trade in one fracturing are servicing nature of business is likely to be measures on
which type of following scales
• nominal scale
47. which type of the following are considered essential steps of the research process
• all of the above
48. the definition of a behavioral factor to allow measurement of it is known as
• An operational definition
49. the term extrapolation is better explained by the statement
• theory predict facts
50. An interval scale contains
• a fixed amount of difference between categories
51. What does a researcher mean by empirical
• observation through sensory experiences
52. The validity of a Measure refers to the
• accuracy with which it measures the construct
53. Concepts created and developed for conducting any research study are
• the building blocks of theory
54. Which of the following is not a technique to narrow down the broad problem area
• Decide about the sample
55. which of the following is /are the basic features of our theoretical framework
• all of above
56. Research that is done to examine the findings of someone else by using the some
variables but
with different respondent comes under which of the following
• Replication
57. If the researchers use findings to generate theories and models to understand human
behavior at
societal level which of the following levels as it relates
• micro level
58. Unethical activities may involve
• all of the given options
59. What is the process of taken construct and refining it be giving conceptual or theoretical
definition
• conceptualization
60. how different theories address and issue comes under
• theoretical review
61. Which of following statement is true
• theory and Research are interrelated
62. Study conducted by Pepsi to find out impact of salary on employees turnover is studied
at what
level
• Micro level
63. A researcher can organize a computerized search by
• all of above
64. the operational definition is also known as
• working definition
65. Which of the following is an example of abstract concept
• Racism
66. in situations where respondents are are intentionally deceived they should be….. once
the research is completed
• Debriefed
67. introduction section of a research proposal contains information about
• all of above
68. Which of the following best describes an operational definition
• all of the given options
69. The total number of basic features that should be incorporated in theoretical
framework
• 6
70. Companies have the right to dissociate themselves from the sponsorship of a research
project This
type of confidentially called
• Sponsorship non-disclosure
71. which of the following is a research strategy for locating literature review for a research
project
• all of the given options
72. null hypothesis state:
• absence of relationship
73. Research can develop theoretical framework on the basis of
• both a and b
74. Which of the following is /are the common sources of literature review
• all of the above
75. Theory is full of all of the following options except
• Guess
76. scientific research focuses on which of the following
• Objectivity
77. While conducting a literature review the researcher engages in
• an evaluation of the Literature
78. All of the following are considered the steps of research process except
• problem definition
79. which of the following is not a feature of theoretical framework
• presenting findings
80. descriptive research can be either
• Both qualitative and quantitative
81. which of the following are considered essential step of research process
• all of the above
82. While discussing about ethics in research which of the following is not considered as
concerned
party
• Government
83. meanings attached to a concept create problems of measurements
• vague
84. Which of the following best describe an operational definition
• all of the given options
85. which of the following statement does best represent the purpose of research
• An application of scientific methods to information
collection and analysis
86. theoretical framework provides the logical base for developing
• Hypothesis
87. Which of the following is not a proper way to write a literature review
• organize common findings are arguments together
88. The scientific method is preferred over other ways of knowing because it is more
• all of the given options
89. An Elementary or basic from of research in which little is known about the situation and
previous
theories or address do not apply is known as
• exploratory study
90. Verifiable characteristic of scientific research deals with all of the following except
• the result interpretation
91. Which of the following best describes the concept of operationalizing
• operationalizing Concepts involves making concepts
measurable
92. Which of the following is not a purpose of literature review
• help you in developing theoretical framework
93. Realities observed through sensor experience are said to be
• Empirical
94. What is the basis of scientific method
• To formulate a research problem test hypothesis in
carefully controlled condition that challenge the
hypothesis
95. Variable takes infinite number of values
• continuous
96. What course of action should be adopted by the researcher and order to safeguard the
rights of
respondent
• researcher should obtain informed consent from the
respondent
97. What is ordinal data
98.
• numbers
99. All of these are characteristics of scientific method research except
• Intuitive
100. To main processes used for measurement of concepts /variables in research are
• conceptualization and operationalization
101. Which of the following is the search strategy for locating literature review for research
project
• all of the given option
102. Descriptive hypothesis contains
• one or more variables
103. The primary source of communication among researchers is
• none of the above
104. Details of reference should include all except
• volume issue and page number
105. Null hypothesis States
• Absence of relationship
106. A logical relationship between two or more variables Express in the form of table
statement is
known as
• Variable
1. Self-study reviews increase the reader’s confidence. A review that only demonstrates
familiarity with an area is rarely published but it often is part of an educational program.
2. Which of the following is a continuous variable ( height age blood pressure all)
3.
4. Which of the are basic features of the theoretical framework(Elaborates the relationship
among the variables.• Explains the logic underlying these relationships.• Describes the
nature, and direction of the relationship All )
5. Nominal scales are the least powerful of the four scales.
6. Focus group discussions: It is a discussion of an issue by 6-12 persons with a moderator
for 1-2
hours.
7. Which of the following variable is undesirable because it adds error to an experiment
None of these
8. When the research starts from the effects and traces the reason back in time what does it
stand for ?case study
9. The first step in development of theoretical framework is to arrange these propositions in
a sequential order
10. Dictionary definitions are also called conceptual or theoretical or nominal definitions.
11. Dictionary definitions are also be named except Bookish definition
12. Once the guarantee of confidentiality is given, protecting that confidentiality is essential.
B : Essesntial for every participant in a research project or D ; All
13. At the empirical level we “experience” reality – that is we observe the objects or events.
14. In situations where respondents are intentionally or accidentally deceived, they should be
debriefed once the research is complete.
15. Two main process used for measurement of concepts/ variables in research are
conceptualization and operationalization
16. Which of the following is a procedure agreed upon for the translation of a concept into
measurement of some kind.
Both Qualitative and Quantitative
Science
17. How a researcher intends to measure the variable in a particular study is called
proposition.
18. Empirical Concepts like people’s subjective feelings, attitudes, ideology, deviance, and
perceptions are difficult to measure in research.
19. Literature review provides a solid foundation for developing Theoretical Framework
20. Unethical activities may involve All of the given Options
21. All of the given options are helpful to develop conceptual definition, EXCEPT;
22. A physiological reaction test was given to 100 participants. Instead of recording reaction
time every participant, the researcher choose to record their position as compare to other
participants, i.e. the fastest participant was coded 1 and the slowest as 100. This is an
example of a/an variable. Nominal
23. In the statement “high motivation results in high efficiency” motivation is the
Independent Variable
24. A research that seeks to determine the answers to who, what, where, and how, comes
under the domain of descriptive research.
25. A concept is generalized idea about All of the given options
26. Before a researcher specified the relationship among variables, he must have a(an):
Arrangement of propositions
27. Plagiarism can be best described as Crediting the Others person’s work as your own
28. Two main Processes used for measurements of concepts/variables are
29. Skepticism is the norm of
30. Descriptive research can be either
31. Which of the following reasons can be reason to conduct research To generate Theories
32. The total number of basic features that should be incorporated in a theoretical framework
are 6
33. Literature review provides a solid foundation for developing the theoretical framework
34. A keyword is an important term that is likely to be found in the title
35. A one tailed hypothesis predicts the direction of the effect.
36. Rights and obligations of researcher are generally dictated by the Norms.
37. Which of the following is a concept All of given
38. Concepts represent various degree of abstraction
39. To say that a theory is falsifiable is to say that; It is so vague that it fits any and all
possible results.
40. In the statement 'an examination of the effects of discretionary behavior on employee
performance' employee performance is the: Dependent variable
41. The following journal article would be an example of
Research; "The benefits of florescent lighting on production in a factory setting." Applied
42. To explain, predict, and/or control phenomena are the goal of The scientific method
43. Vague meanings attached to a concept create problems of measurements.
44. Which one of the following creates problems of measurements of a concept? Vague
meanings
45. The purpose of a literature review is to: Identify any inconsistencies or gaps in the
literature.
46. Why do you need to review the existing
47. literature? To give your dissertation a proper academic appearance, with lots of
reference.
48. Explanatory (causal) hypotheses Hi motivation results in hi efficiency.
49. A Literature review that summarizes what is known at a point in time is known as:Integrative
review
50. Which type of review tells the reader how a project fits into the big picture and its implications fora
field of knowledge Context reviews
how a particular issue or theory has evolved over time is studied in Historical review
Research questions are crucial because they will Guide your decisions about what data to
collect and from where.
53. What is the final step of a scientific investigation? Report the findings
preliminary data collection may be considered as part of the exploratory research.
the rights and obligations of individuals are generally dictated by the norms of society.
Quantitative research studies generally end with a summation of the verification process, which is a
confirmation or disconfirmation of the hypotheses tested via deductive reasoning.
57. Conclusively, the aim of qualitative research is discovery, while the aim of quantitative researchis
verification.
58. Which of the following is not a part of research design? Objective of the study
59. Skepticism is the norm ofscience
60. Face validity indicates that the items that are intended to measure a concept, do on the face of itlook
like they measure the concept.
61. The goal of ethics in research is to ensure that no one is harmed or suffers
adverse consequences from research activities
62. The variable is independent because its value can be manipulated by the experimenter to whateverhe
or she wishes it to be.
63. Debriefing involves ((( Explanation of any deception.• Description of the hypothesis, goal, or purpose
of the study.• Post study sharing of the results.)))) All og the given
64. The is only useful if the concepts, ideas, questions, etc. to be investigated are
both testable and falsifiable Scientific Method
65. Scientific research is a collective efforts of many researchers who share their results with oneanother
and who pursue knowledge as a community both a and b
Research task is usually treated as a sequential process involving several clearly defined steps
The relationship can be ((((non-directional or directional, positive or negative, causal or simply corelational)))) All of the given
69. Theories are supposed to be generic whereby they could be applicable to different situations.
68.
67.
52.
51.
54.
55.
56.
70. Intervening VariablesA basic causal relationship requires only independent anddependent
variable. A third type of variable, the intervening variable, appears in more complex causal
relationships. It comes between the independent and dependent variables and shows the link or
mechanism between them.
71. Any variable that has a limited number of distinct values and which cannot be divided
into fractions, is a discontinuous variable
72. Accur when the respodents are told only part of the truth about the study or whn the truth isfully
compromised Deception
73. The independent variable is the variable manipulated in order to observe its fact
74. variable is any character of interest that can take on more than one value
75. question might invade the privacy of research participant what is your home addres
76. communication is more effective when it is tailored to specific audience
77. next step is performed by the researcher after developing the inventory of revelent variable all of the
given
78. helpful in defining research problem theoretical
79. scope of applicability of the research findings in one organizational setting with help of ftatistics
Empirical
80. the order in which participants complete a task is level of measurement ordinal
81. source of literature review except storybook
82. one of the technique for narrowing a topic into a research question includes examining the literature
83. if the researcher convets the abstract concept into a tangible one is tangible operationalizm
84. a reader can easily see and comprehend the theorized relationship through schematic diagram
85. Which of the following statements is false?
Discrete variables allow measurement of an infinite number of fractions of units of
measurement.
Discrete variables can only have whole number values.
Continuous numbers can only have whole number values.
Continuous measures do not allow for scores that fall between two number values.
86. What is ordinal data?
Ordinary data
Well behaved data
Ranked data Numbers
87. Which of the following is not an example of deception?
A part of the truth is not communicated to the respondent To
observe code of ethics
To leak out information regarding any confidential matter To
create bias between respondents before the survey
88. What is opposite of a variable?
A constant
An extraneous variable A
dependent variable A data
set
89. Which of the following is the BEST hypothesis?
Students taking formative quizzes will perform better on chapter exams than students not taking
these quizzes.
Taller students will have higher test scores than shorter students.
Students taught in a cooperative group setting should do better than students in traditional
class.
Students using laptops will do well.
90. The independent variable is;
The variable manipulated in order to observe its effects The
variable that is measured
The free spirited variable A
confounding variable
91. After you locate a source, you should write down all details of the reference, except;
Full names of the authors
Titles
Volumes
Price
92. A measure has high internal consistency reliability when:
Multiple observers make the same ratings using the measure.
Participants score at the high end of the scale every time they complete the measure.
Multiple observers obtain the same score every time they use the measure.
93. What is required if there is a chance that data could harm the respondents?
Change of results
A signed form detailing the types of limits Free
consent of respondents
All of the given options
94. The key objective of data analysis is to:
Calculate statistics
Understand relationships between variables
Obtain the distribution of responses for each question Create
tables which display the survey results
95. Which of the following is not a concept?
Leadership
Total Quality Management Human
Resource Management IQ
96. Which one of the following creates problems of measurements of a concept?
Unambiguous meanings
Vague meanings Clear
meanings Dictionary
meanings
97. Ms. Laiba has decided to use the test at the end of the textbook to measure the
achievement levels of the students in her study. Which of the following BEST
describes the chapter test?
Definition
Construct
Variable
Operationalized variable
98. The scientific method is preferred over other ways of knowing because it is more;
Reliable
Systematic
Accurate
All of the given options
99. Which of the following is least likely to occur as an ethical problem with e-research?
People are not likely to be able to stop once they have begun participating.
Informed consent cannot be completely monitored. Debriefing could
be avoided.
Privacy could be invaded.
100. The most difficult sources to locate are;
Dissertations
Policy Reports and Presented Papers
Government Documents
Scholarly Books
101. Which of the following is the least obtrusive and most accurate method for
recording data in an interview?
Note taking
Videotaping
Audiotaping
Writing notes after the interview
102. How can we determine if a test has good validity?
It produces the same result when it is given at different times to the same group of people
It produces the same result no matter which version of the test is used It measures
what it is supposed to measure
All of the questions on it can be answered accurately by the subject
103. How is nominal data presented?
In order
In discrete categories
Units of equal distance
Data where there is a true zero
104. When we say that science is parsimonious, we mean that:
Scientific theories are based on laws.
We must be careful because causes can occur after specific effects.
The best scientific theories are those that offer the simplest explanations for a law. Science accurately
describes a wide range of behavior.
105. A concept is a generalized idea about
A class of objects
Attributes Occurrences
All of the given options
106. The purpose of a literature review is to:
Help you find out what is already known about this area. Identify any
inconsistencies or gaps in the literature.
Demonstrate an awareness of the theoretical context in which the current study can be located.
Find what is already known, identify gaps demonstrate awareness.
107. A scale only assigns numbers to objects to classify the objects according to
the characteristic of interest.
Ratio Nominal
Interval
Dichotomous
108. Procedures determining what two issues are rarely used in quantitative research?
Objectivity and subjectivity
Reliability and validity
Accessibility and replicability
Quality and quantity
109. What does Ordinal scale NOT
imply? Characteristics of nominal scale
Rank the object
Does not provide magnitude of object
Provide rate
110. A literature review requires;
Planning Clear
writing Good
writing
All of the given option
111. Quantitative social researchers rarely claim to have established causality because:
They are more concerned with publishing the results of their reliability tests.
They do not believe that this is an appropriate goal to be striving for. They keep
forgetting which of the variables they have manipulated.
They tend to use cross-sectional designs, which produce only correlations.
112. When you are confident that the experimental manipulation produced the changes
you measured in the dependent variable, your study probably has good
validity.
Construct
Internal
External
Causal
113. All the persons involved in the collection of data and supervision of data collection
process are called;
Fieldworkers
Researchers Research
assistants
None of the given options
114. The key objective of data analysis is to:
Calculate statistics
Understand relationships between variables
Obtain the distribution of responses for each question Create
tables which display the survey results
115. The small scale trial run of a particular item is called .
Test run
Pilot test Post
hoc test
T-test
116. Hypothesis refers to :
The outcome of an experiment
A conclusion drawn from an experiment
A form of bias in which the subject tries to outguess the experimenter A
tentative statement about the relationship
117. Detailed and unambiguous instructions are particularly important for: Computerassisted telephone surveys
Mail surveys
Computer-assisted personal interviews
Internet surveys
118. Measurement reliability refers to the:
Accuracy of the scores
Consistency of the scores Dependency
of the scores Comprehensiveness of
the scores
119. Quantitative research has been criticized because:
The measurement process suggests a spurious and artificial sense of accuracy. The reliance
on instruments and procedures makes it high in ecological validity.
It underestimates the similarities between objects in the natural and social worlds. It has no
validity.
120. Why does qualitative interviewing have an advantage over participant observation
when it comes to longitudinal research?
Repeat interviews are easier to organize.
It allows for a better exploration of key issues. It is a
more focused research method.
Participant observers are prone to 'go native' during longitudinal research.
121. Cover letter must include the following information, except:
How was the respondent selected?
Data collecting tools Motivation for
the respondent
Importance of research topic which is going to be conducted
122. The logic of qualitative data analysis is described as:
Objective
Subjective
Inductive
Deductive
123. The validity of a measure refers to the:
Particular type of construct specification
Comprehensiveness with which it measures the construct
Accuracy with which it measures the construct Consistency of the
measurement
124. An advantage of computer-assisted telephone interviewing is:
Interviewing time is reduced
Data quality is enhanced Questionnaires do
not have to be coded
There is little opportunity for interviewer bias
125. Which of the following is not an example of deception?
A part of the truth is not communicated to the respondent
To observe code of ethics
To leak out information regarding any confidential matter To
create bias between respondents before the survey
126. What does it mean if two variables have a positive correlation?
As one variable increases, so does the other
As one variable increases, the other decreases The
correlation between the two variables is 0
The correlation between the two variables is greater than 1.0
127. The researcher protects the confidentiality in following ways, Except;
Obtaining signed nondisclosure documents.
Restricting access to data instruments where the respondent is identified. Disclosure of
data subsets.
Restricting access to respondent identification.
128. Theoretical framework is trying to develop a model of our study.
Functional
Conceptual
Operational
Practical
129. Which of the following is an example of deception in business research?
The obtaining of company material without permission.
The researcher wearing a disguise during an observation.
The researcher representing their research as being about a different topic. The researcher
failing to ask permission to interview someone.
130. To say that a theory is falsifiable is to say that;
It is based on results that are not replicable.
Investigators have replaced it with a simpler or more accurate theory. We can
imagine results that would contradict it.
It is so vague that it fits any and all possible results.
131. Which of the following is an excellent way to enhance the validity of interview data
collection?
Spend an extended period of time in the field. Obtain
participant trust.
Recognize your own biases
Spend time in field, obtain participant trust, recognize biases.
132. When doing research involving deception with human subjects, researchers have an
obligation to do which of the following?
Tell subjects the truth about the study’s purpose and methods after the study is completed
Prevent mental and physical harm to subjects
Let subjects withdraw from the study at any time if they don’t want to keep participating
All of the given options
133. Which of the following is an example of an issue that would be checked in a pilot
testing?
Completion of all questions on a questionnaire
Legible writing
Single responses to all multiple choice questions
Logical answers between questions (i.e., attributes should be rated high if purchase interest is
high)
134. What is the basis of the Scientific Method?
To test hypotheses in conditions that are condusive to its success. To
formulate a research problem and disprove the hypothesis.
To formulate a research problem, test the hypothesis in carefully controlled Conditions
that challenge the hypothesis.
To test hypotheses and if they are disproved, they should be abandoned completely.
135. Quantitative social researchers rarely claim to have established causality because:
They are more concerned with publishing the results of their reliability tests.
They do not believe that this is an appropriate goal to be striving for. They keep
forgetting which of the variables they have manipulated.
They tend to use cross-sectional designs, which produce only correlations.
136. Rationalism is the application of:
Research solution
Logic and arguments
Reasoning
Previous findings
137. After a researcher has stated the specific problem to be studied in an
experiment, he must then develop a(n):
Theory
Conclusion
Hypothesis
Summary of the data
138. Which of the following control techniques available to the researcher
controls for both known and unknown variables?
Building the extraneous variable into the design
Matching
Random assignment
Analysis of covariance
139. Quantitative research has been criticized because:
The measurement process suggests a spurious and artificial sense of accuracy. The reliance
on instruments and procedures makes it high in ecological validity.
It underestimates the similarities between objects in the natural and social worlds. It has no
validity.
140. The outcome of an experiment
A conclusion drawn from an experiment
A form of bias in which the subject tries to outguess the experimenter A
tentative statement about the relationship
141. What is required if there is a chance that data could harm the respondents?
Change of results
A signed form detailing the types of limits Free
consent of respondents
All of the given options
142. Which of the following is a measure in which a researcher adds or combines several
distinct indicators of a construct into a single score?
Scale
Index
Uno-dimensionality
Weighting
143. Which of the following is not an example of deception?
A part of the truth is not communicated to the respondent
To observe code of ethics
To leak out information regarding any confidential matter
To create bias between respondents before the survey
144. What is ordinal data?
Ordinary data
Well behaved data
Ranked data Numbers
145. What research is?
A lab experiment
A report
A systematic Enquiry A
procedure
146. Which of the following terms refers to a statistical method that can be
used to statistically equate groups on a pretest or some other variable?
Experimental control
Differential influence
Matching
Analysis of covariance
147. You wish to make a precise estimate about the characteristics of a
population of individuals. You should use:
Quota sampling Probability
sampling Accidental
sampling Snowball
sampling
148. A researcher is interested in nonverbal behavior among young adults.
The researcher goes to public gathering places in town and observes smiles, gestures, gaze,
and touch. This is an example of;
Blind observation
Quasi-experimentation
Naturalistic observation
Field experimentation
149. Which type of research address major societal change?
Experimental Research
Action Research
Social Research
Historical Comparative Research
150. Rationalism is the application of:
Research solution
Logic and arguments
Reasoning
Previous findings
151. Which of the following provides insight into the complexity of using interviews?
Potential influence of gender or cultural differences between interviewer and
interviewee
The accuracy of the interviewee's responses
The different semantic meanings of the language being used
Accuracy, influences and language used
152. Which of the following elements of Observation in Non Reactive research?
External Appearance
Count Behaviors
Time Duration
All of the given options
153. Research may differ along a series of dimensions. Which of the following may
be applied to this statement?
The type of data collected.
The data-collection technique.
The level of manipulation used to elicit data collection. All of
the given options
154. Which one of the following tasks is NOT accomplished by theoretical
framework? Elaborate the relationship among the variables
Explain the logic underlying the relationship between the variables. Describe the
nature, and direction of the relationships among the variables. Relates the previous
studies.
155. When you are confident that the experimental manipulation produced the changes
you measured in the dependent variable, your study probably has good
validity.
Construct
Internal
External
Causal
156. If a researcher was studying the use of various instructional approaches
to the "multiple intelligences" of his students, he is likely to be conducting which type of research?
Basic
Applied
Evaluation
Grounded theory
157. Which of the following control techniques available to the researcher
controls for both known and unknown variables?
Building the extraneous variable into the design
Matching
Random assignment
Analysis of covariance
158. Which type of research address major societal change?
Experimental Research
Action Research
Social Research
Historical Comparative Research
159. Which of the following is a measure of inflation?
Scale
Consumer price index
Weighting
Uni-dimensionality
160. Which of the following best describes the concept of operationalizing?
161. Why do you need to review the existing literature To find out what is already known
about our area of interest
162. A literature review that summarizes what is known at appoint in time, is known as
Integrative review
163. What should be done if the respondents are intentionally or accidently deceived
they should be debriefed once the research should complete.
164.
165. After you locate a source you should write down all details of reference, except,
Price
166. Null hypothesis states, absence of relation
167. All the given option are helpful to develop conceptual definition except make
elements from dimensions.
168. Which of following is observe at the empirical level reality
169. Operationally defining a concept involves a series of steps
170. The scientific researcher operates at two levels: One is the abstract level of concepts
and other one is the Empirical level of variables.
171. Which of the following must be considered while conducting a literature review for a
research— All of the given option
172. Debriefing involves All of given options
173. There is no relationship between job satisfaction and the employees turnover ratio is
an example of which of the following hypothesis NULL Hypothesis
174. Propositions Explains the logical relationships among the concepts.
175. Dichotomous variable are also known as continuous variable
1. A good qualitative problem statement:
a. Defines the independent and dependent variables
b. Conveys a sense of emerging design
c. Specifies a research hypothesis to be tested
d. Specifies the relationship between variables that the researcher expects to find
2. The “tool” function of theory is to:
a. Summarize existing knowledge
b. Summarize existing hypotheses
c. Suggest new relationships and make new predictions
d. Suggest new theories
3. The statement of purpose in a research study should:
a. Identify the design of the study
b. Identify the intent or objective of the study
c. Specify the type of people to be used in the study
d. Describe the study
4. Why is the statement “What are the effects of extracurricular activities on cognitive
development of school age children” not a good statement of a quantitative research
question?
a. Because there is no connection between extracurricular activities and cognitive
development
b. Because there are not enough school age children engaged in extracurricular
activities to conduct the study
c. Because the study would be too difficult to do given all the different extracurricular
activities
d. Because the statement was not specific enough to provide an understanding of
the variables being investigated
5. A qualitative research question:
a. Asks a question about some process, or phenomenon to be explored
b. Is generally an open-ended question
c. both a and b are correct
d. None of the above
6. According to the text, which of the following orders is the recommended in the
flowchart of the development of a research idea?
a. Research topic, research problem, research purpose, research question,
hypothesis
b. Research topic, research purpose, research problem, research question, and
hypothesis
c. Research topic, research problem, research purpose, research question, and
hypothesis
d. Research topic, hypothesis, research problem, research question, research purpose
7. It is essential that you evaluate the quality of internet resources because information
obtained via the internet ranges from very poor to very good.
a. True
b. False
8. One step that is not included in planning a research study is:
a. Identifying a researchable problem
b. A review of current research
c. Statement of the research question
d. Conducting a meta-analysis of the research
e. Developing a research plan
9. Sources of researchable problems can include:
a. Researchers’ own experiences as educators
b. Practical issues that require solutions
c. Theory and past research
d. All of the above
10. A key characteristic of past research that guides researchers in new research
questions is that:
a. Extensive research conclusively and definitively answers research questions
b. Studies typically generate more research questions than they answer
11. Which of the following is a function of theory?
a. Integrating and summarizing current knowledge
b. Making predictions
c. Explaining phenomena
d. All of the above are important functions of theory
12. A review of the literature prior to formulating research questions allows the
researcher to do which of the following?
a. To become familiar with prior research on the phenomenon of interest
b. To identify potential methodological problems in the research area
c. To develop a list of pertinent problems relative to the phenomenon of interest
d. All of the above
13. Sometimes a comprehensive review of the literature prior to data collection
is not recommended by grounded theorists.
a. True
b. False
14. What kind of ideas can’t be empirically researched?
a. Effectiveness of different methods of instruction
b. Description of educational practices
c. Issues of values and morality such as the correctness of having prayer in
schools
d. Factors helpful in predicting future drug use
15. Which of the following is not a database containing information to be used during
the literature review?
a. ERIC
b. PsychINFO
c. SocioFILE
d. all of the above are potentially useful data bases
16. Computer database searches can be done:
a. With a computer with CD-ROM drive
b. At the library
c. Online
d. All of the above
17. The feasibility of a research study should be considered in light of:
a. Cost and time required to conduct the study
b. Skills required of the researcher
c. Potential ethical concerns
d. All of the above
18. A formal statement of the research question or “purpose of research study”
generally .
a. Is made prior to the literature review
b. Is made after the literature review
c. Will help guide the research process
d. All of the above
e. b and c
19. Is the following qualitative research purpose statement “well stated” or “poorly
stated”? “The focus of the present study was to explore distressing and nurturing
encounters of patients with caregivers and to ascertain the meanings that are
engendered by such encounters. The study was conducted on one of the surgical units
and the obstetrical/gynecological unit of a 374-bed community hospital.”
a. It is a well stated
b. It is poorly stated
20. Which of the following quantitative research questions is superior?
a. “What is the effect of participation in various extracurricular activities on academic
performance?”
b. “What effect does playing high school football have on students’ overall grade
point average during the football season?”
21. A statement of the quantitative research question should:
a. Extend the statement of purpose by specifying exactly the question(s) the researcher
will address
b. Help the research in selecting appropriate participants, research methods, measures,
and materials
c. Specify the variables of interest
d. All of the above
22. The research participants are described in detail in which section of the research
plan?
a. Introduction
b. Method
c. Data analysis
d. Discussion
23. Research hypotheses are .
a. Formulated prior to a review of the literature
b. Statements of predicted relationships between variables
c. Stated such that they can be confirmed or refuted
d. b and c
24. Hypotheses in qualitative research studies usually .
a. Are very specific and stated prior to beginning the study
b. Are often generated as the data are collected, interpreted, and analyzed
c. Are never used
d. Are always stated after the research study has been completed
25. A research plan .
a. Should be detailed
b. Should be given to others for review and comments
c. Sets out the rationale for a research study
d. All of the above
26. The Method section of the research plan typically specifies
a. The research participants
b. The results of prior studies that address the phenomena of interest
c. The apparatus, instruments, and materials for the research study
d. The planned research procedures
e. a, c and d
27. The Introduction section of the research plan
a. Gives an overview of prior relevant studies
b. Contains a statement of the purpose of the study
c. Concludes with a statement of the research questions and, for quantitative research,
it includes
the research hypothesis
d. All of the above
28. According to your text, which of the following is not a source of research ideas?
a. Everyday life
b. Practical issues
c. Past research
d. Theory
e. All of the above ARE sources of research ideas
On which component of his field notes was Mr. M focused when he expressed in his
notes his thoughts and ideas about what he observed?
Reflection
Protocol
Formal data
Analysis
Which of the following is NOT a longitudinal study?
Trend study
Census study
Panel study
Cohort study
A census taker often collects data through which of the following?
Standardized tests
Interviews
Secondary data
Observations
What is opposite of a variable?
A constant
An extraneous variable
A dependent variable
A data set
A literature review requires;
planning
clear writing
good writing
All of the given option
When we say that science is parsimonious, we mean that:
Scientific theories are based on laws.
We must be careful because causes can occur after specific effects.
The best scientific theories are those that offer the simplest explanations for a
law.
Science accurately describes a wide range of behavior.
If the control variable has no effect on the bivariate relationship then it is:
Spurious relationship.
Not spurious relationship.
Both A & B.
None of the above.
Which term technically describes a situation in which an observer's work in a
first-grade classroom disrupts the normal routines due to the curiosity of the
students?
Observer effect
Participant effect
Non participant bias
Observer bias
Testing is most likely to negatively affect internal validity when .
The information tested is attitudinal in nature
The time between pre- and posttest is short
The instrument is unreliable
The participants are very low scorers
A researcher is interested in nonverbal behavior among young adults. The
researcher goes to public gathering places in town and observes smiles,
gestures, gaze, and touch. This is an example of;
Blind observation
Quasi-experimentation
Naturalistic observation
Field experimentation
Which of the following is included in research proposal?
Data analysis
Results
Literature review
Conclusions section
“Skepticism” is a norm of science. It is better explained by which of the following
statement?
Combining the previous knowledge
Critical reading of the previous researches
Providing the proper references of qouted text
Locating research reports in libraries
Which type of research address major societal change?
Experimental Research
Action Research
Social Research
Historical Comparative Research
Which of the following terms best describes data that were originally collected at
an earlier time by a different person for a different purpose?
Primary data
Secondary data
Experimental data
Field notes
The person who leads a focus group discussion is called a .
Anchor
Facilitator
Moderator
Recorder
Categorical measures are forms of measurement classified as
Measures that reflect quantitative differences.
Measures that reflect qualitative differences
Measures that do not require mutual exclusivity or exhaustiveness when devising a
measuring system.
Rationale measures.
If variables a and b are highly correlated, the
there is a strong relationship between a and b
a causes b
b causes a
there is no relationship between a and b.
In a study of the relationship between self-concept and resilience for males and
for females, the minimal acceptable sample size for the whole study would be
10
30
60
90
Which section of a research report sets the stage for the report and indicates
where in the report each component, tables, and figures can be found?
Preliminary pages
Table of contents
Main body
Appendices
Which of the following is the least obtrusive and most accurate method for
recording data in an interview?
Note taking
Videotaping
Audiotaping
Writing notes after the interview.
Which of the following is an excellent way to enhance the validity of
observational data collection?
Spend an extended period of time in the field.
Obtain participant trust.
Recognize your own biases.
All of the above.
Which of the following is a measure in which a researcher adds or combines
several distinct indicators of a construct into a single score
Scale
Index
Unidimensionality
Weighting
Which type of research address major societal change
Experimental research
Action research
Social research
Historical comparative research
In which of the following sampling methods People are available such as
volunteer or can be easily recruited?
Simple random sampling
Cluster sampling
Systematic sampling
Convenience sampling
Which of the following can be referred as semantic analysis?
Latent coding
Accretion
Count behaviors
Intensity
Which of the following group that does not receive the experimental treatment
condition?
Experimental group
Control group
Treatment group
Independent group.
Which of the following is a measure of inflation?
Scale
Consumer price index
Weighting
Unidimensionality
Which of the following is newer method of survey?
Mail survey
E-mail survey
Field survey
If a measure is consistent over multiple occasions, it has: Select
correct option:
Inter-rater reliability
Construct validity
Internal validity
Test-retest reliability
Question # 3 of 15
Why do you need to review the existing literature? Select
correct option:
To give your dissertation a proper academic appearance, with lots of references Because
without it, you could never reach the required word-count
To find out what is already known about your area of interest To help
in your general studying
All of the following are true about theories, except; Select
correct option:
They organize and summarize existing knowledge about a topic.
They are tentative until the facts prove them true.
They provide possible explanations for the phenomenon under study They lead
to testable hypotheses through the process of deduction. Question # 5 of 15 (
Quantitative social researchers rarely claim to have established causality because:
Select correct option:
They are more concerned with publishing the results of their reliability tests. They do
not believe that this is an appropriate goal to be striving for.
They keep forgetting which of the variables they have manipulated.
They tend to use cross-sectional designs, which produce only correlations.
Question # 6 of 15
skepticism is a norm of science. It is better explained by which of the following
statement? Select correct option:
Combining the previous knowledge
Critical reading of the previous researches Providing
the proper references of qouted text Locating research
reports in libraries
Question # 7 of 15
Which of the following provides a solid basis foundation for the theoretical framework? Select correct
option:
Survey
Literature Review
Experiment
Referencing
Question # 8 of 15
------------------surveys are more impersonal than face-to-face interviews. Select
correct option:
Mail
Recorded Interview
Focus group
Telephone
Question# 9 of 15
Which of the following is not a feature of theoretical framework? Select
correct option:
Making an inventory of variables
Specify the direction of relationship
Presenting findings
Making an inventory of propositions
Question # 10 of 15
In definition, a concept is explained in terms of other concepts. Select
correct option:
Operational definition
Working definition
Theoretical definition None
of the given options
Question # 11 of 15
To explain, predict, and/or control phenomena are the goal of----------------------
Select correct option:
Tradition
Inductive logic
Deductive logic
The scientific method
Question # 12 of 15
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a good research topic? Select
correct option:
It is ethical.
It can be investigated through the collection and analysis of data.
It focuses on a philosophical or ethical issue.
It is theoretically or practically significant.
Question # 13 of 15
Which of the following is a concept?
Select correct option:
Leadership.
Total Quality Management. Human
Resource Management.
All of the given options
Question # 14 of 15
The most critical areas of an article to read is; Select
correct option:
Results section
Introduction
Abstract
Limitations
Question # 15 of 15
Quantitative researcher's preoccupation with generalization is an attempt to:
Select correct option:
Develop the law like findings of the natural sciences. Boost
their chances of publication.
Enhance the internal validity of their research. Demonstrate the
complex techniques of statistical analysis.
Question # 1 of 15
The following journal article would be an example of research; "The benefits of
florescent lighting on production in a factory setting."
Select correct option:
Applied
Interview
Basic
Stupid
Question # 3 of 15
The key objective of data analysis is to:
Select correct option:
Calculate statistics
Understand relationships between variables
Obtain the distribution of responses for each question Create
tables which display the survey results
Question # 4
An indicator of reliability based on the correlations of each item in a measure with every other item is
called:
Select correct option:
Test-retest reliability
Cronbach's alpha
Split-half reliability
Inter item ratio
Question # 5 of 15 meanings attached to a concept create problems of
measurements.
Select correct option:
Unambiguous
Vague
Clear
Dictionary
Question # 6 of 15
High productivity is positively associated with Job commitment. The given hypothesis is a (an):
Select correct option:
Descriptive hypothesis
Explanatory hypothesis NonDirectional hypothesis
Co-relational hypothesis
Question # 7 of 15
Which one of the following is not an assumption of science? Select correct option: There are
reoccurring patterns in the world.
Events happen because of preceding causes.
We can discover solutions to problems of interest. Theoretical
explanations must agree with common sense.
Question # 8 of 15
The is only useful if the concepts, ideas, questions, etc. to be investigated are both
testable and falsifiable. Select correct option:
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Experimental Method
Scientific Method
Question # 9 of 15
Which of the following is NOT a legitimate research problem as stated? Select correct option:
What is the relationship between the number of books children read and their reading scores?
Should competitive games be banned from elementary schools?
What does it mean to be a special needs child "included" in Ms. AmaraÃs fourth grade
class?
What are the major legal principles applied to educational cases decided by the Supreme Court?
Question # 10 of 15
If a researcher is studying the effect of using laptops in his classroom to ascertain their merit and worth,
he is likely conducting which type of research?
Select correct option:
Basic
Applied
Evaluation
Experimental
Question # 12 of 15 ( Start time: 01:52:24 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Basic and Applied Research are the classifications of research on the basis of: Select correct
option:
Use of the research Time
dimension Techniques used
Purpose of the research
Question # 13 of 15
In we collect same type of information from different respondents in different
times.
Select correct option:
Cohort study
Time series Research
Panel study
Case studies
Question # 15 of 15
Which of the following is the least appropriate research problem? Select
correct option:
Does studying Latin improve the standardized vocabulary test scores of seventh grade students?
Does drilling fifth grade students with multiplication facts improve their standardized
test scores?
What is the relationship between students' math attitudes and math achievement?
Should students have access to controversial novels in school?
Question # 1 of 15
If an interview is conducted with a respondent who does not meet the qualifications for a study, what kind
of bias has occurred?
Select correct option:
Respondent bias
Position bias
Non-response bias
Instrument bias
Question # 2 of 15
According to Empiricism, which of the following is the ultimate source of all our concepts
and knowledge?
Select correct option:
Perceptions
Theory
Sensory experience
Logics and arguments
Question # 4 of 15
Which of the following is least likely to occur as an ethical problem with e-research? Select
correct option:
People are not likely to be able to stop once they have begun participating. Informed
consent cannot be completely monitored.
Debriefing could be avoided.
Privacy could be invaded.
Question # 5 of 15
What is required if there is a chance that data could harm the respondents? Select
correct option:
Change of results
A signed form detailing the types of limits Free
consent of respondents
All of the given options
Question # 7 of 15
A measure has high internal consistency reliability when:
Select correct option:
Multiple observers make the same ratings using the measure.
Participants score at the high end of the scale every time they complete the measure. Multiple
observers obtain the same score every time they use the measure.
Each of the items correlates with other items on the measure.
Quetion # 8 of 15
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a good research topic? Select
correct option:
It is ethical.
It can be investigated through the collection and analysis of data.
It focuses on a philosophical or ethical issue. It is
theoretically or practically significant.
Question # 9 of 15
A review that only demonstrates familiarity with an area is rarely published but it often is part of an
educational program is which type of review?
Select correct option:
Integrative reviews
Theoretical reviews
Self-study reviews
Historical reviews
Question # 10 of 15
Detailed and unambiguous instructions are particularly important for: Select
correct option:
Computer-assisted telephone surveys
Mail surveys
Computer-assisted personal interviews
Internet surveys
Question # 11 of 15
Which of the following is NOT a longitudinal study?
Select correct option:
Trend study
Census study
Panel study
Cohort study
Question # 12 of 15 What is a cross-sectional research? Select
correct option:
A study of one particular section of society
A comparison of two or more variables over a long period of time
The collection of data from more than one case at one moment in time One that is
conducted when environment is uncertain
Question # 13 of 15
The small scale trial run of a particular item is called .
Select correct option:
Test run
Pilot test Post
hoc test t-test
Question # 14 of 15
Which one of the following aspect to be evaluated during ìPilot Testingî? Select
correct option:
Reactions of Respondents Discovering
errors in the instrument Sampling
procedure can be checked
All of the given options
Question # 15 of 15
Research may differ along a series of dimensions. Which of the following may be applied to this
statement?
Select correct option:
The type of data collected. The
data-collection technique.
The level of manipulation used to elicit data collection.
All of the given options
Question # 1 of 15
Hypothesis refers to : Select correct option:
The outcome of an experiment
A conclusion drawn from an experiment
A form of bias in which the subject tries to outguess the experimenter
A tentative statement about the relationship
Question # 2 of 15
A review that only demonstrates familiarity with an area is rarely published but it often is part of an
educational program is which type of review?
Select correct option:
Integrative reviews
Theoretical reviews
Self-study reviews
Historical reviews
Question # 4 of 15
In which of the following Tests, we give extra training to the interviewer in case of big research
funded by an organization?
Select correct option:
Test Run
Pilot Test Post
Hoc Test TTest
Question # 5 of 15
The number of people who complete a survey in relation to the number of people contacted to
participate is called the:
Select correct option:
Response set
Response rate
Response bias
Respondents
Question # 6 of 15
Research questions are crucial because they will: Select
correct option:
Guide your decisions about what data to collect and from where. Help you
decide which research area interests you.
Ensure that your findings have external validity. Prevent you
from thinking about research strategies.
Question # 7 of 15
12. Which of the following true about the relationship between theory building and data collection?
Select correct option:
When studies come out as expected, inductive support for the theory is gained.
If an experiment fails, discarding the experiment is an example of affirming the consequent. When a
hypothesis is not supported, virtually nothing has been learned about the theory.
A good theory will be inclusive enough to explain every possible research outcome.
Question # 9 of 15
The most critical areas of an article to read is; Select correct option:
Results section
Introduction
Abstract
Limitations
Question # 10 of 15
ìSkepticismî is a norm of science. It is better explained by which of the following statement?
Select correct option:
Combining the previous knowledge
Critical reading of the previous researches Providing
the proper references of qouted text Locating research
reports in libraries
Question # 11 of 15
Before a researcher specified the relationship among variables, he must have a (an): Select
correct option:
Inventory of variables Inventory
of propositions Arrangement of
propositions Schematic diagram
Question # 12 of 15
Which of the following provides a solid basis foundation for the theoretical framework? Select correct
option:
Survey
Literature Review
Experiment
Referencing
Question # 15 of 15
What is the variable called that a researcher manipulates in an experiment? Select correct option:
Dependent variable
Independent variable
Extraneous variable
None of the given options
Question # 1 of 15
What is required if there is a chance that data could harm the respondents? Select
correct option:
Change of results
A signed form detailing the types of limits Free
consent of respondents
All of the given options
Question # 2 of 15
Which of the following is an advantage of open questions? Select
correct option:
They allow respondents to answer in their own terms. They prevent
respondents from giving unusual answers. They allow respondents
to put less effort into their answer. They allow respondents to code
their answers in advance.
Question # 3 of 15 Hypothesis refers to :
Select correct option:
The outcome of an experiment
A conclusion drawn from an experiment
A form of bias in which the subject tries to outguess the experimenter
A tentative statement about the relationship
Question # 4 of 15
Question # 6 of 15 ( Start time: 09:05:12 PM ) Total Marks: 1 A
measure has high internal consistency reliability when:
Select correct option:
Multiple observers make the same ratings using the measure
Participants score at the high end of the scale every time they complete the measure. Multiple
observers obtain the same score every time they use the measure.
Each of the items correlates with other items on the measure.
Question # 8 of 15
What is the basis of the Scientific Method?
Select correct option:
To test hypotheses in conditions that are condusive to its success. To
formulate a research problem and disprove the hypothesis.
To formulate a research problem, test the hypothesis in carefully controlled conditions
that challenge the hypothesis.
To test hypotheses and if they are disproved, they should be abandoned completely.
Question # 9 of 15
Which of the following is the BEST hypothesis?
Select correct option:
Students taking formative quizzes will perform better on chapter exams than students not
taking these quizzes.
Taller students will have higher test scores than shorter students.
Students taught in a cooperative group setting should do better than students in a traditional class.
Students using laptops will do well.
Question # 10 of 15
An advantage of computer-assisted telephone interviewing is: Select
correct option:
Interviewing time is reduced
Data quality is enhanced
Questionnaires do not have to be coded There is
little opportunity for interviewer bias
Question # 11 of 15
The following journal article would be an example of research; "The benefits of
florescent lighting on production in a factory setting."
Select correct option:
Applied
Interview
Basic
Stupid
Question # 12 of 15
Which of the following is not a feature of theoretical framework? Select
correct option:
Making an inventory of variables
Specify the direction of relationship
Presenting findings
Making an inventory of propositions
Question # 13 of 15
Basic and Applied Research are the classifications of research on the basis of: Select
correct option:
Use of the research Time
dimension Techniques used
Purpose of the research
Question # 14 of 15
Which of the following is the least obtrusive and most accurate method for recording data in an
interview?
Select correct option:
Note taking Videotaping
Audiotaping
Writing notes after the interview
Question # 15 of 15
Which of following statement is true? Select correct option: Theory
and Research are dichotomous
Theory and Research are interrelated
There is no difference between Theory and Research None
of the given statements is true
Question # 1 of 15
Research questions are crucial because they will: Select correct option:
Guide your decisions about what data to collect and from where. Help you
decide which research area interests you.
Ensure that your findings have external validity. Prevent you
from thinking about research strategies.
Question # 2 of 15
Which of the following is not a function of clearly identified research questions? Select correct
option:
They guide your literature search.
They keep you focused throughout the data collection period.
They make the scope of your research as wide as possible.
They are linked together to help you construct a coherent argument.
Question # 3 of 15
What is opposite of a variable?
Select correct option:
A constant
An extraneous variable A
dependent variable A data
set
Question # 4 of 15
Quantitative social researchers rarely claim to have established causality because: Select correct
option:
They are more concerned with publishing the results of their reliability tests. They do
not believe that this is an appropriate goal to be striving for.
They keep forgetting which of the variables they have manipulated.
They tend to use cross-sectional designs, which produce only correlations.
Question # 5 of 15
Research may differ along a series of dimensions. Which of the following may be applied to this
statement?
Select correct option:
The type of data collected. The
data-collection technique.
The level of manipulation used to elicit data collection.
All of the given options
Question # 6 of 15
The following journal article would be an example of research; "The benefits of
florescent lighting on production in a factory setting."
Select correct option:
Applied
Interview
Basic
Stupid
Question # 8 of 15
In definition, a concept is explained in terms of other concepts. Select
correct option:
Operational definition
Working definition
Theoretical definition None
of the given option
Question # 9 of 15
An operational definition is:
Select correct option:
One that bears no relation to the underlying concept. An
abstract, theoretical definition of a concept.
A definition of a concept in terms of specific, empirical measures.
One that refers to opera singers and their work.
Question # 10 of 15
Rationalism is the application of:
Select correct option:
Research solution
Logic and arguments
Reasoning
Previous findings
Question # 11 of 15
The term “Extrapolation” is better explained by the statement: Select
correct option:
Facts lead to the rejection of theory
Identification of the gap in knowledge
Theory predicts facts
None of the given options
Question # 12 of 15
A variable is: Select correct option:
Any characteristic of interest that can take on more than one value Defined
as the groups manipulated in experimental research
The complete set of scores we use in statistical analysis
Completely specified only in observational research
Question # 13 of 15
The facts that should be collected to measure a variable, depend upon the Select
correct option:
Conceptual understanding
Dictionary meaning
Operational definition
All of the above
Question # 14 of 15
What type of process research is?
Select correct option:
A process to discover the truth
A process to invent the machines A
process to make new medicines A
process to create theories
Question # 15 of 15
Ms. Laiba has decided to use the test at the end of the textbook to measure the achievement levels of the
students in her study. Which of the following BEST describes the chapter test?
Select correct option:
Definition
Construct
Variable
Operationalized variable
Question # 1 of 15
Which of the following is not a concept?
Select correct option:
Leadership
Total Quality Management Human
Resource Management
IQ
Question # 2 of 15
Which of the following statements is false?
Select correct option:
Discrete variables allow measurement of an infinite number of fractions of units of
measurement.
Discrete variables can only have whole number values.
Continuous numbers can only have whole number values.
Continuous measures do not allow for scores that fall between two number values.
Question # 3 of 15
The independent variable is;
Select correct option:
The variable manipulated in order to observe its effects The
variable that is measured
The free spirited variable A
confounding variable
Question # 4 of 15
Hypothesis refers to :
Select correct option:
The outcome of an experiment
A conclusion drawn from an experiment
A form of bias in which the subject tries to outguess the experimenter
A tentative statement about the relationship
Question # 5 of 15
All of these are characteristics of scientific methods of research except, it is;Select correct option:
Cumulative
Deterministic
Unethical
Rationalism
Question # 6 of 15
Question # 7 of 15
If a measure is consistent over multiple occasions, it has: Select
correct option:
Inter-rater reliability
Construct validity
Internal validity
Test-retest reliability
Question # 8 of 15
Question # 9 of 15
If a nominal scale is used, it is permissible to calculate which of the following statistics?
Select correct option:
Mean
Range
Percentile
Mode
Question # 10 of 15
Basic and Applied Research are the classifications of research on the basis of:
Select correct option:
Use of the research
Time dimension
Techniques used
Purpose of the research
Question # 11 of 15
Which of the following is included in research proposal?
Select correct option:
Data analysis
Results
Literature review
Conclusions section
Question # 12 of 15
What is the variable called that a researcher manipulates in an experiment?
Select correct option:
Dependent variable
Independent variable
Extraneous variable
None of the given options
Question # 13 of 15
The most critical areas of an article to read is;
Select correct option:
Results section
Introduction
Abstract
Limitations
Question # 14 of 15
A review that only demonstrates familiarity with an area is rarely published but it often
is part of an educational program is which type of review?
Select correct option:
Integrative reviews
Theoretical reviews
Self-study
reviews Historical
reviews
Question # 15 of 15
An operational definition is:
Select correct option:
One that bears no relation to the underlying concept.
An abstract, theoretical definition of a concept.
A definition of a concept in terms of specific, empirical measures.
One that refers to opera singers and their work.
Question # 1 of 15
Why, as scientists, do we not want to rely on authority for explanations?
Select correct option:
Those in authority are often wrong.
Those in authority cannot be challenged.
Those in authority rely too much on objective information.
Those in authority often have no common sense.
Question # 2 of 15
Which of the following is an example of a dilemma that might face feminist business
researchers conducting qualitative interviews with women?
Select correct option:
What role to adopt when interviewing male managers?
How many female employees should be interviewed for a representative sample?
How to overcome the issue of false consciousness?
What data to use when publishing findings?
Question # 3 of 15 ( Start time: 12:33:29 AM ) Total Marks:
1 Which of the following is an example of value-free
research? Select correct option:
Conscious favor
Sympathy for the loser
Unstructured interviewing
None of the given options
Question # 4 of 15
The validity of a measure refers to the:
Select correct option:
Particular type of construct specification
Comprehensiveness with which it measures the construct
Accuracy with which it measures the construct
Consistency of the measurement
Question # 6 of 15
An advantage of computer-assisted telephone interviewing is:
Select correct option:
Interviewing time is reduced
Data quality is enhanced
Questionnaires do not have to be coded There
is little opportunity for interviewer bias
Question # 7 of 15
ìSkepticismî is a norm of science. It is better explained by which of the following
statement?
Select correct option:
Combining the previous knowledge
Critical reading of the previous researches
Providing the proper references of qouted text
Locating research reports in libraries
Question # 8 of 15
A researcher developed a measure of shyness and is now asking whether this measure
does in fact measure a person's true state of shyness. This is a question of:
Select correct option:
Reactivity
Construct
validity
Reliability
Content validity
Question # 10 of 15
In the statement 'an examination of the effects of discretionary behaviour on employee
performance' employee performance is the:
Select correct option:
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Extraneous variable
Causal variable
Question # 13 of 15
Which type of questions should be first in a questionnaire or interview?
Select correct option:
Questions about demographics such as age and gender
Questions about attitudes and behaviors
Most easy question
Difficult questions
Question # 14 of 15
Measurement reliability refers to the:
Select correct option:
Accuracy of the scores
Consistency of the scores
Dependency of the scores
Comprehensiveness of the scores
Question # 15 of 15
Which of the following is an advantage of open questions?
Select correct option:
They allow respondents to answer in their own terms. They
prevent respondents from giving unusual answers. They
allow respondents to put less effort into their answer. They
allow respondents to code their answers in advance.
Question # 2 of 15
A Literature review that summarizes what is known at a point in time is known as:
Select correct option:
Narrative literature review
Systematic literature review
Integrative review
Historical review
Question # 3 of 15 Which of the following is the best hypothesis statement to address
the research question,
"What impact will the new advertising campaign have on use of Brand B?"
Select correct option:
The new advertising campaign will impact Brand B usage.
The new advertising campaign will increase Brand B trial.
The new advertising campaign will cause increased Brand B usage at the expense of
Brand C.
Question # 4 of 15
After a researcher has stated the specific problem to be studied in an experiment, he
must then develop a(n):
Select correct option:
Theory
Conclusion
Hypothesis
Summary of the data
Question # 5 of 15
12. Which of the following true about the relationship between theory building and data
collection? Select correct option:
When studies come out as expected, inductive support for the theory is gained.
If an experiment fails, discarding the experiment is an example of affirming the
consequent.
When a hypothesis is not supported, virtually nothing has been learned about the
theory.
A good theory will be inclusive enough to explain every possible research outcome.
Question # 7 of 15
The extensive use of chocolate causes pimples. The given hypothesis is a (an):
Select correct option:
Descriptive hypothesis
Explanatory hypothesis
Non-Directional
hypothesis Co-relational
hypothesis
Question # 8 of 15
What is ordinal data?
Select correct option:
Ordinary data
Well behaved data
Ranked data
Numbers
Question # 9 of 15
An operational definition is:
Select correct option:
One that bears no relation to the underlying concept. An
abstract, theoretical definition of a concept.
A definition of a concept in terms of specific, empirical measures.
One that refers to opera singers and their work.
Question # 10 of 15
Basic and Applied Research are the classifications of research on the basis of:
Select correct option:
Use of the research
Time dimension
Techniques used
Purpose of the research
Question # 12 of 15
The elaboration of the variables in the theoretical framework addresses which type of
qestions?
Select correct option:
Why we expect certain relationships to exist
How we expect certain relationships to exist
Both of the given questions
None of the given questions
Question # 15 of 15
Which of the following is included in research proposal?
Select correct option:
Data analysis
Results
Literature review
Conclusions section
Question # 1 of 15
meanings attached to a concept create problems of measurements.
Select correct option:
Unambiguous
Vague
Clear
Dictionary
Question # 2 of 15
Which of the following statements is true?
Select correct option:
All concepts are variables and all variables are concepts
All variables are concepts but all concepts are not variable
All concepts are variable but all variables are not concepts
None of the above
Question # 3 of 15
Which of the following is Not a source of Literature review?
Select correct option:
Scholarly journals
Experiment
Dissertations
Bibliographical
indexes
Question # 4 of 15
What is a cross-sectional research?
Select correct option:
A study of one particular section of society
A comparison of two or more variables over a long period of time
The collection of data from more than one case at one moment in time
One that is conducted when environment is uncertain
Question # 5 of 15
What is required if there is a chance that data could harm the respondents?
Select correct option:
Change of results
A signed form detailing the types of limits
Free consent of respondents
All of the given options
Question # 6 of 15
The purpose of a literature review is to:
Select correct option:
Help you find out what is already known about this area.
Identify any inconsistencies or gaps in the literature.
Demonstrate an awareness of the theoretical context in which the current study can be
located.
Find what is already known, identify gaps demonstrate awareness.
Question # 7 of 15
Which type of questions should be first in a questionnaire or interview?
Select correct option:
Questions about demographics such as age and gender
Questions about attitudes and behaviors
Most easy question
Difficult questions
Question # 8 of 15
A measure has high internal consistency reliability when: Select correct option:
Multiple observers make the same ratings using the measure.
Participants score at the high end of the scale every time they complete the measure.
Multiple observers obtain the same score every time they use the measure.
Each of the items correlates with other items on the measure.
Question # 9 of 15
Mr. Haris is interested in studying the shared beliefs and practices of the teachers in a
small rural school. He is likely to use which research design?
Select correct option:
Action research
Historical research
Ethnography
Grounded theory
Question # 10 of 15
According to Empiricism, which of the following is the ultimate source of all our
concepts and knowledge?
Select correct option:
Perceptions
Theory
Sensory experience
Logics and arguments
Question # 11 of 15
Which of the following is an example of an issue that would be checked in a pilot
testing?
Select correct option:
Completion of all questions on a questionnaire
Legible writing
Single responses to all multiple choice questions
Logical answers between questions (i.e., attributes should be rated high if purchase
interest is high)
Question # 14 of 15
The validity of a measure refers to the:
Select correct option:
Particular type of construct specification
Comprehensiveness with which it measures the construct
Accuracy with which it measures the construct
Consistency of the measurement
Question # 1 of 15
The scientific method is preferred over other ways of knowing because it is more;
Select correct option:
Reliable
Systematic
Accurate
All of the given options
Question # 3 of 15
Which of the following is Not a source of Literature review?
Select correct option:
Scholarly journals
Experiment
Dissertations
Bibliographical
indexes
Question # 5 of 15
Which one of the following is not an assumption of science?
Select correct option:
There are reoccurring patterns in the world.
Events happen because of preceding causes.
We can discover solutions to problems of interest.
Theoretical explanations must agree with common sense.
Question # 7 of 15
What is the first step in the research process?
Select correct option:
Preliminary data collection
Problem definition
Theoretical framework
Define broad problem area
Question # 8 of 15
A measure has high internal consistency reliability when:
Select correct option:
Multiple observers make the same ratings using the measure.
Participants score at the high end of the scale every time they complete the measure.
Multiple observers obtain the same score every time they use the measure.
Each of the items correlates with other items on the measure.
Question # 9 of 15
Which of the following is an example of value-free research?
Select correct option:
Conscious favor
Sympathy for the loser
Unstructured interviewing
None of the given options
Question # 10 of 15
Which of the following is NOT a legitimate research problem as stated?
Select correct option:
What is the relationship between the number of books children read and their reading
scores?
Should competitive games be banned from elementary schools?
What does it mean to be a special needs child "included" in Ms. AmaraÃs fourth grade
class?
What are the major legal principles applied to educational cases decided by the
Supreme
Court?
Question # 13 of 15
Why, as scientists, do we not want to rely on authority for explanations?
Select correct option:
Those in authority are often wrong.
Those in authority cannot be challenged.
Those in authority rely too much on objective information.
Those in authority often have no common sense.
Question # 14 of 15
Which of the following questions might invade the privacy of a research participant?
Select correct option:
How long have you worked for this organisation?
What is your home address?
What do you think about your direct line manager? What
happened during your last performance appraisal?
Question # 2 of 15
Which of the following should not be a consideration in writing a proposal?
Select correct option:
Understanding the problem situation
The appearance/form of the proposal
Responding to every element exactly as specified by the client
Knowing as much as possible about the proposal recipients
Question # 3 of 15
Which of the following is NOT a legitimate research problem as stated?
Select correct option:
What is the relationship between the number of books children read and their reading
scores?
Should competitive games be banned from elementary schools?
What does it mean to be a special needs child "included" in Ms. AmaraÃs fourth grade
class?
What are the major legal principles applied to educational cases decided by the
Supreme
Court?
Question # 4 of 15
What is the reason for consulting handbooks, yearbooks, encyclopedias, or reviews in
the initial stages of identifying a research topic? Select correct option:
They are readily available.
They provide an overview of the issues related to a topic.
They are primary sources.
They avoid reporting statistical data so one can interpret the results more easily.
Question # 5 of 15
Under which of the following research method is not applicable? Select correct option:
Health care
Business
Government offices
Imaginary worlds
Question # 6 of 15
Quantitative research has been criticised because:
Select correct option:
The measurement process suggests a spurious and artificial sense of accuracy.
The reliance on instruments and procedures makes it high in ecological validity.
It underestimates the similarities between objects in the natural and social worlds. It
has no validity.
Question # 9 of 15
How can we determine if a test has good validity?
Select correct option:
It produces the same result when it is given at different times to the same group of people
It produces the same result no matter which version of the test is used
It measures what it is supposed to measure
All of the questions on it can be answered accurately by the subject
Question # 10 of 15
What is the variable called that a researcher manipulates in an experiment?
Select correct option:
Dependent variable
Independent variable
Extraneous variable
None of the given options
Question # 11 of 15
All of the following are true about theories, except;
Select correct option:
They organize and summarize existing knowledge about a topic.
They are tentative until the facts prove them true.
They provide possible explanations for the phenomenon under study.
They lead to testable hypotheses through the process of deduction.
Question # 12 of 15
A theory is a coherent set of used as principles of explanations of the
apparent
relationship of certain observed phenomena.
Select correct option:
Disciplines
Propositions
Empirical
Realities
None of the given options
Question # 1 of 15
In which way does a ratio scale measurement differ from an interval measurement? Select
correct option:
It measures larger or smaller scores on some underlying dimension.
It implies the existence of an absolute zero value.
It requires the mutual exclusivity of all cases.
It requires that exhaustiveness is applied to all observations.
Question # 2 of 15
A review that only demonstrates familiarity with an area is rarely published but it often is
part of an educational program is which type of review?
Select correct option:
Integrative reviews
Theoretical reviews
Self-study
reviews Historical
reviews
Question # 3 of 15
Which of the following is a
concept? Select correct option:
Leadership.
Total Quality
Management. Human
Resource Management.
All of the given options
Question # 4 of 15
If an interview is conducted with a respondent who does not meet the qualifications
for a study, what kind of bias has occurred? Select correct option:
Respondent
bias
Position
bias
Non-response bias
Instrument bias
120 STA630 Solved MCQs
Solved by Mehran Hasan Khan Niazi
1. Rationalism is the application of which of the following?
➢ Logic and arguments
➢ Research solution
➢ Reasoning
➢ Previous findings
2. On which of the following, scientific knowledge mostly relies?
➢ Logical understanding
➢ Identification of events
➢ Prior knowledge
➢ All of the given options
3. Which of the following refers to research supported by measurable evidence?
➢ Opinion
➢ Empiricism
➢ Speculation
➢ Rationalism
4. Research method is applicable in all of the following fields, EXCEPT;
➢ Health care
➢ Religion
➢ Business
➢ Government offices
5. All of the following are true statements about action research, EXCEPT;
➢ Data are systematically analyzed
➢ Data are collected systematically
➢ Results are generalizable
➢ Results are used to improve practice
6. Which of the following is characteristic of action research?
➢ Variables are tightly controlled
➢ Results are generalizable
➢ Data are usually qualitative
➢ Results demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships
7. If a researcher is studying the effect of using laptops in his classroom to ascertain their merit
and worth, he is likely conducting which of the following types of research?
➢ Experimental
➢ Applied
➢ Basic
➢ Evaluation
8. Exploratory research addresses which of the following types of question?
➢ If
➢ How
➢ Why
➢ What
9. Which of the following is not the source for getting information for exploratory research?
➢ Content analysis
➢ Survey
➢ Case study
➢ Pilot study
10. Which of the following is the main quality of a good theory?
➢ A theory that has survived attempts at falsification
➢ A theory that is proven to be right
➢ A theory that has been disproved
➢ A theory that has been falsified
11. Which of the following is not a concept?
➢ Leadership
➢ Total Quality Management
➢ Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
➢ Human Resource Management
12. A variable that is presumed to cause a change in another variable is known as:
➢ Discontinuous variable
➢ Dependent variable
➢ Independent variable
➢ Intervening variable
13. Which of the following is the opposite of a variable?
➢ An extraneous variable
➢ A dependent variable
➢ A data set
➢ A constant
14. Which of the following can best be described as a categorical variable?
➢ Age
➢ Annual income
➢ Grade point average
➢ Religion
15. “Income distribution of employees” in a specific organization is an example of which of
following type of variable?
➢ Discontinuous variable
➢ Continuous variable
➢ Dependent variable
➢ Independent variable
16. “There is no relationship between higher motivation level and higher efficiency” is an
example of which type of hypothesis?
➢ Alternative
➢ Null
➢ Correlational
➢ Research
17. Which of the following is not a role of hypothesis?
➢ Guides the direction of the study
➢ Determine feasibility of conducting the study
➢ Identifies relevant and irrelevant facts
➢ Provides framework for organizing the conclusions
18. Hypothesis test may also be called as:
➢ Informal test
➢ Significance test
➢ Moderating test
➢ T-test
19. Which type of review compares how different theories address an issue?
➢ Context review
➢ Integrated review
➢ Theoretical review
➢ Methodological review
20. After you locate a source, you should write down all details of the reference, EXCEPT;
➢ Volumes
➢ Titles
➢ Price
➢ Full names of the authors
21. Two power bases of scientific knowledge are Empiricism and Rationalism
22. Action research is a type of Applied research
23. Three types of longitudinal research are time series, panel, and cohort
24. The research proposal is just like a research report, but it is written before the research project
begins.
25. Natural science concepts are often expressed in symbolic forms.
26. Discrete variable is also called……….
➢ Categorical variable
➢ Discontinuous variable
➢ Both A & B
➢ None of the above
27. “Officers in my organization have higher than average level of commitment”
Such a hypothesis is an example of……….
➢ Descriptive Hypothesis
➢ Directional Hypothesis
➢ Relational Hypothesis
➢ All of the above
28. ‘Science’ refers to……….
➢ A system for producing knowledge
➢ The knowledge produced by a system
➢ Both A & B
➢ None of the above
29. Which one of the following is not a characteristic of scientific method?
➢ Deterministic
➢ Rationalism
➢ Empirical
➢ Abstraction
30. The theoretical framework discusses the interrelationships among the……….
➢ Variables
➢ Hypothesis
➢ Concept
➢ Theory
31. The double blind experiment is designed to control experimenter expectancy.
32. Pilot testing is also called pre-testing.
33. The totality, out of which sample is drawn is referred to as population.
34. The physical setting of the interview creates Situational bias.
35. Probing is the verbal prompts made by field worker.
36. ………research is based on naturalism.
➢ Field research
➢ Descriptive research
➢ Basic research
➢ Applied research
37. Personal interviews conducted in shopping malls are known as………
➢ Mall interviews
➢ Mall intercept interviews
➢ Brief interviews
➢ None of the given options
38. ……… is used to obtain the freest opinion of the respondent, by asking general question
before a specific question.
➢ Research technique
➢ Qualitative technique
➢ Funnel technique
➢ Quantitative technique
39. In, ……… the interviewer and members jointly control the pace and direction of the
interview.
➢ Field interview
➢ Telephonic interview
➢ Both A and B
➢ None of the given options
40. Randomization of test units is a part of ………
➢ Pretest
➢ Posttest
➢ Matching
➢ Experiment
41. ___________research is based on naturalism.
➢ Field research
➢ Descriptive research
➢ Basic research
➢ Applied research
42. Personal interviews conducted in shopping malls are known as_________
➢ Mall interviews
➢ Mall intercept interviews
➢ Brief interviews
➢ None of the given options
43. ____________is used to obtain the freest opinion of the respondent, by asking general
question before a specific question.
➢ Research technique
➢ Qualitative technique
➢ Funnel technique
➢ Quantitative technique
44. In, ____________the interviewer and members jointly control the pace and direction of the
interview.
➢ Field interview
➢ Telephonic interview
➢ Both A and B
➢ None of the given options
45. Randomization of test units is a part of ______________
➢ Pretest
➢ Posttest
➢ Matching
➢ Experiment
46. Which one of the following sets is the measure of central tendency?
➢ Mean, standard deviation, mode
➢ Mean, median, standard deviation
➢ Arithmetic mean, median, mode
➢ Standard deviation, internal validity, mode
47. Internal validity refers to .
➢ Researcher’s degree of confidence.
➢ Generalizability
➢ Operationalization
➢ All of the above
48. How many times the students appear in the research class is the example of
_________.
➢ Intensity
➢ Space
➢ Frequency
➢ Direction
49. Time consumed in mall intercept interview is .
➢ High
➢ Moderate
➢ Low
➢ Nil
50. Departmental stores selected to test a new merchandising display system is the example of .
➢ Quota sampling
➢ Convenience sampling
➢ Judgmental sampling
➢ Purposive sampling
51. In ___________, the researcher attempts to control and/ or manipulate the variables in the study.
➢ Experiment
➢ Hypothesis
➢ Theoretical framework
➢ Research design
52. In an experimental research study, the primary goal is to isolate and identify the effect produced
by the ____.
➢ Dependent variable
➢ Extraneous variable
➢ Independent variable
➢ Confounding variable
53. A measure is reliable if it provides consistent ___________.
➢ Hypothesis
➢ Results
➢ Procedure
➢ Sensitivity
54. The interview in which questions are already prepared is called ________.
➢ Telephonic interview
➢ Personal interview
➢ Unstructured interview
➢ Structured interview
55. The numerical description that describe sample may be expected to differ from those that describe
population because of random fluctuations inherent in sampling process.
➢ Sampling design
➢ Non-probability sampling
➢ Sampling error
➢ Probability sampling
56. In ______________ , each population element has a known and equal chance of selection.
➢ Purposive sampling
➢ Quota sampling
➢ Stratified sampling
➢ Simple random sampling
57. ______ is the evidence that the instrument, techniques, or process used to measure concept does
indeed measure the intended concepts.
➢ Reliability
➢ Replicability
➢ Scaling
➢ Validity
58. A researcher is interested in studying why the “new math” of the 1960s failed. She
interviews several teachers who used the new math during the 1960s. These teachers are
considered as:
➢ Primary sources
➢ Secondary Sources
➢ External critics
➢ Internal critics
59. Which of the following is NOT true about stratified random sampling?
➢ It involves a random selection process from identified subgroups
➢ Proportions of groups in the sample must always match their population proportions
➢ Disproportional stratified random sampling is especially helpful for getting large enough
subgroup samples when subgroup comparisons are to be done
➢ Proportional stratified random sampling yields a representative sample
60. Experimental design is the only appropriate design where_________ relationship can be
established.
➢ Strong
➢ Linear
➢ Weak
➢ Cause and Effect
61. Review of literature shows the incredibility of the body of knowledge and identifies the points at
which the researcher made the research area ambiguous and unclear. (False)
62. The literature survey provides a solid foundation for developing the theoretical framework.
(True)
63. The hypothesis should not only be specific to a place and situation but also these should be
narrowed down with respect to its operation. (True )
64. A cohort analysis is similar to cross-sectional research. (False)
65. A literature review does not consider the prior studies, their agreements or disagreements in the
field. (False)
66. Research hypothesis is formulated by the researcher which suggests the nature of relationship i.e.
the direction of relationship.
67. Correlational hypothesis merely states that the variables occur together and does not imply that
one causes the other.
68. Longitudinal type of research examine feature of any unit at more than one time.
68. Historical review helps to : traces the development of an idea or shows how a particular issue
or theory has evolved over time.
69. Which of the following is considered as one of the main parties in a research:
Ans: The researcher (Lesson13-p41)
70. Linking the language of theory with the language of empirical measures is done in:
Ans: operationalization
71. Vague: meanings attached to a concept create problems of measurement.
70. Discontinuous variable is also known as discrete/ categorical/ classificatory variable.
71. Which is not a source of existing statistics?
➢ Government
➢ International agencies
➢ Personal interviews
➢ Private sources
72. Followings are the advantages of secondary data except
➢ Non-Reactivity
➢ Selective survival
➢ Low cost
➢ Spontaneity
73. Following are the disadvantages of secondary data except
➢ Longitudinal analysis
➢ Sampling bias
➢ Coding difficult
➢ Incompleteness
74. The coding of the secondary data may be difficult because of
➢ Differences in content or subject matter
➢ Lack of standardization
➢ Differences in length and format
➢ All of these
75. The researcher must be concerned about the following problems while using secondary data in
research.
➢ Validity
➢ Reliability
➢ Both of these
➢ None of these
76. Validity problems occur when the researcher’s theoretical definition does not
match that of the government agency or organization that collected the
information.
77. Reliability problems occur when official definition or the method of collecting
Information changes over time.
78. Secondary data refer to information gathered by someone other than the
researcher conducting the present study.
79. Experiments are best for topics where the researcher controls a situation and
manipulates an Independent variable.
80. A social indicator is any measure of wellbeing used in policy.
81. All the persons involved in the collection of data and supervision of data collection process are
called
➢ Fieldworkers
➢ Researchers
➢ Research assistants
➢ None of the given options
82. While terminating the interview, the fieldworker should not do one of the following:
➢ He should record all the responses made by the interviewee before leaving.
➢ He should thank the interviewee.
➢ He should close the interview hastily.
➢ He should answer all the questions the respondent asks concerning the nature and purpose of
the study.
83. Which one of these is a type of Interviewee bias?
➢ The respondent does not tell his true income, age, or contact
information.
➢ The fieldworker fails to probe the interviewee properly.
➢ The fieldworker contacted the wrong person for interview.
➢ The fieldworker asks the questions in wrong order.
84. A magazine conducts a survey and asks its readers to cut the questionnaire from the
magazine, fill it and send it via mail. It is a type of
➢ Purposive sampling
➢ Snowball sampling
➢ Sequential sampling
➢ Convenience sampling
85. The height distribution of a few students in a school is an example of
➢ Statistic
➢ Population
➢ Parameter
➢ Element
86. A researcher wants to conduct a survey of the drug users. Which type of sampling
technique will be most appropriate here?
➢ Sequential sampling
➢ Snowball sampling
➢ Quota sampling
➢ Convenience sampling
87. When there is a need to apply different data collection methods to different parts of
the population, the best sampling method would be
➢ Double sampling
➢ Cluster sampling
➢ Stratified random sampling
➢ Systematic random sampling
88. The sampling technique in which every element of the population has an equal, nonzero
probability of being selected in a sample, is called
➢ Probability sampling
➢ Convenience sampling
➢ Purposive sampling
➢ Quota sampling
89. Target population is also called
➢ Population
➢ Survey population
➢ Population element
➢ Population frame
90. Which one of them is the method for probing the respondent?
➢ Repeat the question
➢ Give an expectant pause
➢ Repeat the respondent’s reply
➢ All of the given options
91. Which one of the following sets is the measure of central tendency?
➢ Mean, standard deviation, mode
➢ Mean, median, standard deviation
➢ Arithmetic mean, median, mode
➢ Standard deviation, internal validity, mode
92. In lab experiment the effect of Variables is controlled to evaluate the causal
relationship.
➢ Extraneous
➢ Moderate
➢ Intervening
➢ All of the above
93. Internal validity refers to .
➢ Researcher’s degree of confidence.
➢ Generalizability
➢ Operationalization
➢ All of the above
94. Which of the following is the weakest experimental design?
➢ One group pretest-posttest design
➢ Quasi- experimental design
➢ Two group posttest only design
➢ Ex post facto design
95. How many times the students appear in the research class is the example of _________.
➢ Intensity
➢ Space
➢ Frequency
➢ Direction
96. Disadvantage of content analysis is .
➢ Researcher can increase the sample size
➢ Provides access on the subjects to which researcher does have physical access.
➢ Sometime documents provide incomplete account to the researcher
➢ Spontaneous feelings can be recorded when they occurred
97. Which of the following statement is incorrect with respect to “An experimental design is a
set of procedures specifying:”
➢ How the test units (subjects) are to be divided into homogenous sub samples.
➢ What independent variables or treatments are to be measured?
➢ What dependent variables are to be measured?
➢ How the extraneous variables are to be controlled?
98. Time consumed in mall intercept interview is .
➢ High
➢ Moderate
➢ Low
➢ Nil
99. “Teacher should create a friendly environment in the classroom” this is the type of
.
➢ Leading question
➢ Loaded question
➢ Double Barreled
➢ Burdensome question
100. Departmental stores selected to test a new merchandising display system is the
example of .
➢ Quota sampling
➢ Convenience sampling
➢ Judgmental sampling
➢ Purposive sampling
101. Hypothesis refers to
➢ The outcome of an experiment
➢ A conclusion drawn from an experiment
➢ A form of bias in which the subject tries to outguess the experimenter
➢ A tentative statement about the relationship
102. Statistics is used by researchers to
➢ Analyze the empirical data collected in a study
➢ Make their findings sound better
➢ Operationally define their variables
➢ Ensure the study comes out the way it was intended
103. A literature review requires
➢ Planning
➢ Good & clear writing
➢ Lot of rewriting
➢ All of the above
104. A literature review is based on the assumption that
➢ Copy from the work of others
➢ Knowledge accumulates and learns from the work of others
➢ Knowledge disaccumulates
➢ None of the above option
105. A theoretical framework
➢ Elaborates the r/s among the variables
➢ Explains the logic underlying these r/s
➢ Describes the nature and direction of the r/s
➢ All of the above
106. Which of the following statement is not true?
➢ A research proposal is a document that presents a plan for a project
➢ A research proposal shows that the researcher is capable of successfully conducting the
proposed research project
➢ A research proposal is an unorganized and unplanned project
➢ A research proposal is just like a research report and written before the research project
107. Preliminary data collection is a part of the
➢ Descriptive research
➢ Exploratory research
➢ Applied research
➢ Explanatory research
108. Conducting surveys is the most common method of generating
➢ Primary data
➢ Secondary data
➢ Qualitative data
➢ None of the above
109. After identifying the important variables and establishing the logical reasoning in theoretical
framework, the next step in the research process is
➢ To conduct surveys
➢ To generate the hypothesis
➢ To focus group discussions
➢ To use experiments in an investigation
110. The appropriate analytical technique is determined by
➢ The research design
➢ Nature of the data collected
➢ Nature of the hypothesis
➢ Both A & B
111. Personal interviews conducted in shopping malls are known as:
➢ Mall interviews
➢ Mall intercept interviews
➢ Brief interviews
➢ None of the given options
112. WATS lines provided by long distance telephone service at fixed rates. In this regard, WATS is
the abbreviation of:
➢ West Africa Theological Seminary
➢ Washtenaw Area Transportation Study
➢ Wide Area Telecommunications Service
➢ World Air Transport Statistics
113. A list of questions which is handed over to the respondent, who reads the questions and records
the answers himself is known as the:
➢ Interview schedule
➢ Questionnaire
➢ Interview guide
➢ All of the given options
114. One of the most critical stages in the survey research process is:
➢ Research design
➢ Questionnaire design
➢ Interview design
➢ Survey design
115. Question that consists of two or more questions joined together is called a:
➢ Double barreled question
➢ General question
➢ Accurate question
➢ Confusing question
116. The number of questionnaires returned or completed divided by the total number of eligible
people who were contacted or asked to participate in the survey is called the:
➢ Response rate
➢ Participation rate
➢ Inflation rate
➢ None of the given options
117. To obtain the freest opinion of the respondent, when we ask general question before a specific
question then this procedure is called as the:
➢ Research technique
➢ Qualitative technique
➢ Funnel technique
➢ Quantitative technique
118. A small scale trial run of a particular component is known as:
➢ Pilot testing
➢ Pre-testing
➢ Lab experiments
➢ Both A & B
119. Field testing of the questionnaire shows that:
➢ Respondents are willing to co-operate
➢ Respondents are not willing to co-operate
➢ Respondents do not like any participation
➢ All of the given options
120. Service evaluation of hotels and restaurants can be done by the:
➢ Self-administered questionnaires
➢ Office assistant
➢ Manager
➢ None of the given options
1. Concepts like people subjective feeling
• Empirical
2. approaches is usually used in quantitative research
• detective approach
3. measurement of Reliability refers to the
• accuracy of the scores
4. realities is observed through sensory experience are said to be Empirical
5. their introduction section of a research proposal contains information about all of the
following except
• design of the study
6. which of the following is the reason for deception
• All of above
7. Context review help to
• summarize what is known at a point in time
8. Which of the following represents a good qualitative problem statement
• Conveys a sense of emergent design
9. If our research was today the use of various instructional approaches to the multiple
intelligences of his students he is likely to be conducted in which type of research
Applied
10. which of the following is / are the basic feature of a theoretical framework
• Make an Inventory of propositions
11. A Literature review is built on the assumption that
• Both a and b
12. Which helps the researcher to capture the intensity of variable is called Scale
13. Which of the following is also referred to as working definition
• operational definition
14. Hypothesis refer to
• a tentative statement about the relationship
15. Which of the following is not a method of narrowing a topic Pilot testing
16. research methods help in all of the following ways except
• to avoid business
17. Research that seeks to determine the answer to who, what, where and how comes under the
domain of…….. research
• Descriptive
18. the definition of a behavioral factor to allow measurement of it is known
19. as an operational definition
20. Thereviewed literature must be
• relevant to the research project
21. The introduction section of a research proposal contains information about all of the
following except
• design of the study
22. A clear, precise, and succinct statement of the question are issued that is to be investigated
with the goal of finding and answer our solution is called
• problem statement
23. A system of systematically interrelated concepts definition and proposition that are
• advanced to explain and Predict phenomena is known as
24. rationalism is the application of
• logic and arguments
25. The detail of reference should include all except
• volume, issue & page number
26. There is no relationship between advertising and sales of product A given hypothesis is
Null hypothesis
27. an operational definition is
• A Definition of concept in term of specific empirical measures
28. There is no relationship between job satisfaction and the employees to Turnover rate in an
example of which of the following Hypothesis
• null hypothesis
29. operational define a concept involves a series of
• Steps
30. All of the following are purposes of descriptive research accept
• the desire to know why
31. which among the following is type of applied research
• impact assessment research
32. Identify the term which is referred to as the conformation are dissertation of the observation
| through the scientific method by using sensory experience | Empirical |
| Research study in which the unit of analysis remains same at specific interval over a longer | |
| period of time is known as | |
| • | the series study |
33. 34. integrativereview helps to
• Summarizes what is known at a point in time
35. Which of the following tasks is not accomplished by the theoretical framework
• Describes the nature and direction of the relationship among the variables
36. Higher the level of job satisfaction higher will be the employees performance which type of
relationship the moment of variable determines
• negative relationship
37. is the purpose explanatory research
• the desire to know why
38. The most critical areas of an article to read are
• methods and results
39. Apart from that deception is unethical what is the other important disadvantage of deceiving
people
• all of the given options
40. logical relationship among the factors identified in the literature review is called
• Theoretical framework
41. The higher the motivation the higher the efficiency is an example of ……….hypothesis
explanatory hypothesis
42. scientific research focuses on which of the following
• Objectives
43. methodological review helps to
• Place a scientific project in the big picture
44. The verifiable characteristics of scientific research deals with
• the results replication
45. research in his questionnaire asked nature of business respondents are working in weather
trade in one fracturing are servicing nature of business is likely to be measures on which type
of following scales
| • | nominal scale |
| which type of the following are considered essential steps of the research process | all |
46. 47. operational definition
48. the term extrapolation is better explained by the statement
• theory predict facts
49. An interval scale contains
• a fixed amount of difference between categories
50. What does a researcher mean by empirical
• observation through sensory experiences
51. The validity of a Measure refers to the
• accuracy with which it measures the construct
52. Concepts created and developed for conducting any research study are
• the building blocks of theory
53. Which of the following is not a technique to narrow down the broad problem area
Decide about the sample
54. which of the following is /are the basic features of our theoretical framework all of above
55. Research that is done to examine the findings of someone else by using the some variables
| but with different respondent comes under which of the following | Replication |
| If the researchers use findings to generate theories and models to understand human behavior | |
| at societal level which of the following levels as it relates | |
| • | micro level |
56. 57. Unethical activities may involve
• all of the given options
58. What is the process of taken construct and refining it be giving conceptual or theoretical
definition conceptualization
59. Which of following statement is true
• theory and Research are interrelated
60. Study conducted by Pepsi to find out impact of salary on employees turnover is studied at
what level
• Micro level
61. A researcher can organize a computerized search by
• all of above
62. the operational definition is also known as
• working definition
63. Which of the following is an example of abstract concept
• Racism
64. in situations where respondents are are intentionally deceived they should be….. once the
research is completed
• Debriefed
65.
| introduction section of a research proposal contains information about | all of above |
| • | all of the given options |
66. 67. The total number of basic features that should be incorporated in theoretical framework
• 6
68. Companies have the right to dissociate themselves from the sponsorship of a research project
This type of confidentially called
| • | Sponsorship non-disclosure |
| which of the following is a research strategy for locating literature review for a research | |
| project | all of the given options |
69.
70. null hypothesis state:
• absence of relationship
71. Research can develop theoretical framework on the basis of
• both a and b
72. Which of the following is /are the common sources of literature review all of the
above
73. Theory is full of all of the following options except
• Guess
74. scientific research focuses on which of the following
• Objectivity
75. While conducting a literature review the researcher engages in
• an evaluation of the Literature
76. All of the following are considered the steps of research process except problem
definition
77. which of the following is not a feature of theoretical framework
• presenting findings
78. descriptive research can be either
• Both qualitative and quantitative
79. which of the following are considered essential step of research process all of the above
80. While discussing about ethics in research which of the following is not considered as
concerned party
• Government
81. meanings attached to a concept create problems of measurements vague
82. Which of the following best describe an operational definition
• all of the given options
83. whichof the following statement does best represent the purpose of research
• An application of scientific methods to information collection and analysis
84. theoretical framework provides the logical base for developing Hypothesis
85. Which of the following is not a proper way to write a literature review
• organize common findings are arguments together
86. The scientific method is preferred over other ways of knowing because it is more all
of the given options
87. An Elementary or basic from of research in which little is known about the situation and
previous theories or address do not apply is known as
88.
• exploratory study
89. Verifiable characteristic of scientific research deals with all of the following except the
result interpretation
90. Which of the following best describes the concept of operationalizing
• operationalizing Concepts involves making concepts measurable 101.Which of
the following is not a purpose of literature review
• help you in developing theoretical framework
102. Realities observed through sensor experience are said to be Empirical
103. What is the basis of scientific method
• To formulate a research problem test hypothesis in carefully controlled condition that
challenge the hypothesis
104. Variable takes infinite number of values
• continuous
| 105. | What course of action should be adopted by the researcher and order to safeguard the rights of |
• researcher should obtain informed consent from the respondent 109. What is ordinal data
• numbers
110. All of these are characteristics of scientific method research except
• Intuitive
111. To main processes used for measurement of concepts /variables in research are
• conceptualization and operationalization
112. Which of the following is the search strategy for locating literature review for research project
all of the given option
113. Descriptive hypothesis contains
• one or more variables
114. The primary source of communication among researchers is
• none of the above
115. Details of reference should include all except
• volume issue and page number 116.Nullhypothesis States
• Absence of relationship
117. A logical relationship between two or more variables Express in the form of table statement is
known as
• Variable
11 paper in one file
MIDTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2010
STA630- Research Methods (Session - 4)
Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Research can help in the following ways for developing methodologies, EXCEPT;
❖ Tools of data collection
❖ New technique for gathering data
❖ Defining a problem
❖ Data analysis
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the folowing is the basis of the Scientific Method?
❖ To test hypothesis in conditions that is conducive to its success.
❖ To formulate a research problem and disprove the hypothesis.
❖ To formulate a research problem, test the hypothesis in carefully controlled
conditions that challenge the hypothesis.
❖ To test hypothesis and if they are disproved, they should be abandoned
completely.
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Research method is applicable in all of the following fields, Except.
❖ Health care
❖ Business
❖ Government offices
❖ Religion
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following BEST describes quantitative research?
❖ The collection of non numerical data
❖ An attempt to confirm the research’s hypotheses
❖ Research that is exploratory
❖ Research that attempts to generate a new theory
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the definition of an independent variable?
❖ A variable that is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter.
❖ A response variable.
❖ The behavioural measure made by the experimenter.
❖ A dependent variable that is controlled by the experimenter.
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Why do you need to review the existing literature?
❖ To give your dissertation a proper academic appearance, with lots of
references.
❖ Because without it, you could never reach the required word-count.
❖ To find out what is already known about your area of interest.
❖ To help in your general study.
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A literature review should be characterized by all of the following, EXCEPT;
❖ Summarize and report each article.
❖ Use important topics as the organizing structure of the review.
55. Analyze all articles for similarities and differences related to major topics.
56. Discuss implications relative to the research problem.
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following functions is performed by theoretical framework?
❖ Elaborates the relationship among the variables.
❖ Explains the logic underlying these relationships.
❖ Describes the nature, and direction of the relationships.
❖ All of the given options.
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When there is a need of generating new ideas for hypotheses or to interpret the
results of some research, which one is the best research deign?
❖ Experiment
❖ Surveys
❖ Focus group discussion
❖ Communication analysis
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What should the business researcher be aware of when signing a confidentiality
agreement?
❖ Any clause which limits the length of a questionnaire.
❖ Any clause which allows the company to comment on findings that will be
published.
❖ Any clause which increases the level of access for the researcher.
❖ Any clause which guarantees the anonymity of research participants.
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is an example of deception in business research?
❖ The obtaining of company material without permission.
❖ The researcher wearing a disguise during an observation.
❖ The researcher representing their research as being about a different topic.
❖ The researcher failing to ask permission to interview someone.
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
All of the following are part of the ethics code for animal research, except;
❖ The researcher must be an expert about the species being studied.
❖ Procedures using reinforcement are preferred over those using punishment.
❖ Animal studies that are purely educational in purpose cannot be done.
❖ If the animal must be killed at the end of the study, a painless procedure must
be used.
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is not an example of deception?
❖ A part of the truth is not communicated to the respondent.
❖ To observe code of ethics.
❖ To leak out information regarding any confidential matter.
❖ To create bias between respondents before the survey.
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following BEST describes an assessment that examines students'
ability to conduct a chemistry experiment in the lab?
❖ Aptitude
❖ Interest inventory
❖ Performance assessment
❖ Standardized test
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is a legitimate purpose of a research plan?
It forces you to think through every aspect of a study.
It provides detailed procedures to guide the conduct of the study.
It provides clear roadmap of the study.
Writing a plan facilitates the evaluation of it.
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following surveys are more impersonal than face-to-face interviews?
Mail
Recorded Interview
Focus group
Telephonic
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
All of the following are the characteristics of scientific methods of research,
EXCEPT;
Cumulative
Deterministic
Unethical
Rationalism
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT the feature of theoretical framework?
Make an inventory of variables
Statistical analysis
Specify the direction of relationship
Make an inventory of propositions
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following study requires the collection of data at one point in time
from a large number of respondents?
Case study
Cross-sectional study
All of the given options
Longitudinal study
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT the goal of the explanatory research?
Testing theory
Establishing the relationship between different phenomenon
Generating new ideas about the topic
Replicating a theory to a new area
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Basic research can also be called as
Practical research
Fundamental Research
Action research
Assessment research
Question No: 22 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Descriptive hypothesis is also called:
Directional Hypothesis
Univariate Hypothesis
Non directional Hypothesis
All of the given options
Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Logical argument of the researcher can be based on:
Personal experience
Literature review
Arm chair thinking
All of the given options
Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Rationalism is the application of which of the following?
Research solution
Logic and arguments
Intuition
Previous findings
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the characteristic/s of Hypotheses in qualitative
research studies?
Hypotheses are very specific and stated prior to beginning the study.
Hypotheses are never used.
Hypotheses are often generated as the data are collected, interpreted, and
analyzed.
Hypotheses are deductively tested
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
_______________are more specific that dimensions:
Elements
Variables
Aspects of variables
Concepts
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is an indicator of the job stress?
Competitive pay
Role conflict
Fair policies
None of the given options
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following functions is performed by the Ratio scale?
All of the given options
Distance
Order
Unique origin
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following effect in internal validity occurs when test units with
extreme scores are used.
Statistical regression
Selection Bias
Maturation
Instrumentation
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The design where we have no control over the variables and report only what has
happened or what is happening is called___________
Research design
Contrived design
Ex-post-facto design
Explanatory design
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following disadvantage of personal interview can be overcome by
rapport building?
Cost
Lack of anonymity of the respondents
Scarcity of highly trained interviewers
Callbacks
Question No: 32 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Large number of respondents are best interviewed in a (an)__________ way
Unstructured
Structured
Semi structured
Open ended
Question No: 33 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which one of these is an interviewer-administered questionnaire?
Postal questionnaire
Delivery and collection questionnaire
Telephone questionnaire
On-line questionnaire
Question No: 34 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
One of the disadvantages of the internet survey is:
All people cannot participate
Slow data collection speed
Less anonymity
High cost
Question No: 35 ( Marks: 3 )
Why preliminary notification is essential in self administered questionnaire?
Question No: 36 ( Marks: 5 )
A research was conducted by education department to see the impact of strict
teaching practices on the rate of failure among the students.
Identify dependent and independent variables. (1)
Classify this research according to purpose of doing research; exploratory,
descriptive or explanatory. Explain your choice.(2)
Classify this research according to use of research; Basic or Applied. Explain
your choice.(2)
Question No: 37 ( Marks: 5 )
"Because literature survey is a time-consuming exercise, a good in-depth
interview will be sufficient to develop a theoretical framework". Discuss this
statement.
Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Who, among the following, is the writer of Business Research Methods?
Neuman, W.C.
Zikmund, W.
Sekaran, U.
Dessler, G.
To test hypothesis in conditions that is conducive to its success.
To formulate a research problem and disprove the hypothesis.
To formulate a research problem, test the hypothesis in carefully
controlled conditions that challenge the hypothesis.
To test hypothesis and if they are disproved, they should be abandoned
completely.
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The action research method is depicting as a strengthening process because;
Data collection continues throughout data analysis.
The results are analyzed and used by other researchers to conduct additional
investigations of the topic.
The action researcher continues to study other topics of interest after the initial
study is completed.
The process continues even after the data are collected and analyzed, and
actions are taken based on findings.
Data collection continues throughout data analysis.
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Quantitative researcher's pre-occupation with generalization is an attempt to:
Develop the law like findings of the natural sciences.
Boost their chances of publication.
Enhance the internal validity of their research.
Demonstrate the complex techniques of statistical analysis.
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
“Income distribution of employees” in a specific organization is an example of
which type of variable?
Discontinuous variable
Dependent variable
Continuous variable
Independent variable
Informal test
Moderating test
Significance test
t-test
Significance test
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A formal statement of the research question or “purpose of research study”
generally:
Is made prior to the literature review
Is made after the literature review
Will help guide the research process
Is made before or after literature review
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc3.htm
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What should the business researcher be aware of when signing a confidentiality
agreement?
Any clause which limits the length of a questionnaire.
Any clause which allows the company to comment on findings that will be
published.
Any clause which increases the level of access for the researcher.
Any clause which guarantees the anonymity of research participants.
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Quantitative research has been criticised because:
The reliance on instruments and procedures makes it high in ecological
validity.
The measurement process suggests a spurious and artificial sense of
accuracy.
It underestimates the similarities between objects in the natural and social
worlds.
It has no validity.
The measurement process suggests a spurious and artificial sense of
accuracy.
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following BEST describes an assessment that examines students'
ability to conduct a chemistry experiment in the lab?
Aptitude
Interest inventory
Performance assessment
Standardized test
Aptitude
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
One of the preoccupations of quantitative researchers is with generalization,
which is a sign of:
External validity
Internal reliability
External reliability
Internal validity
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A study design in which the researcher might create_______ to establish causeand-effect relationship is called Experimental Design.
An artificial setting, control some variables and manipulates the
independent variable
A natural setting, control some variables and manipulates the dependent
variables
An artificial setting, control some variables and manipulates the dependent
variable
All of the given options
An artificial setting, control some variables and manipulates the independent
variable
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following types of survey research is often used for program
evaluation or accreditation purposes?
Developmental surveys
Followup studies
Public opinion polls
No survey research is appropriate
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What should the researcher do if they have achieved a low response rate?
Copy responses and paste them again.
Abandon the research project entirely.
Recognize and accept the possible limitations of a low response rate.
Fill in some more questionnaires themselves.
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following characteristic of the scientific method is defined as the
confirmation or refutation of the observation through the scientific method by
using sensory experience?
Empirical
Verifiable
Observable
Cumulative
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following study requires the collection of data at one point in time
from a large number of respondents?
Case study
Cross-sectional study
All of the given options
Longitudinal study
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Basic research can also be called as
Practical research
Fundamental Research
Action research
Assessment research
Evaluation of the previous research methodologies used by the researchers
page 27
Assessment of the models built by the previous researchers
Reviewing the review in the systematic manner
Studying the specific context under study
Evaluation of the previous research methodologies used by the researchers
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The review that presents the current state of knowledge by combining different
reports is called:
Self study review
Theoretical review
Systematic review
Integrative review
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The best method to narrow down a topic is to:
Develop theoretical framework
Review literature
Test a hypothesis
Conduct a survey
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is not the part of the funded research proposal?
Research strategies
Significance of the research
Research Team
Theoretical framework
Question No: 22 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Why should we study research for our degree requirement?
Because we live in a society that is driven by research.
To improve our critical thinking skills.
To learn how to critically evaluate published research.
All of the given options
Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is elaborative exploratory pilot study?
Focus group discussion 7 page
Literature review
Document analysis
Survey
It is difficult to control the external factors to research
It is possible to establish perfect cause and effect relationship
Survey method is not appropriate
It is similar to lab experiment
It is possible to establish perfect cause and effect relationship
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the BEST hypothesis?
Students taking formative quizzes will perform better on exams at the end of the
chapter than students not taking these quizzes.
Taller students will have higher test scores than shorter students.
Students taught in a cooperative group setting should do better than students in
a traditional class.
Students using laptops will do well.
Students taught in a cooperative group setting should do better than students in
a traditional class.
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
‘There is no relationship between motivation leveland efficiency’ is an example
of which type of hypothesis?
Alternative
Correlational
Null
Research
Null
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is not a characteristic of the operational definition?
It divides a concept into the empirical measures
It translates a broad phenomenon into specific concepts page 18
It delineates the antecedents of the concept being operationalized
It provides the working definition of the concept
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following types of scales is likely measuring students' deeply held
beliefs about ideas, people, or objects?
The Study of Values
The Attitudes toward School Scale
The Strong Campbell Interest Inventory
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
The Attitudes toward School Scale
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements is correct about validity and reliability?
When internal validity is high, external validity is low
When internal validity is high, there is no change in external validity
When internal validity is high, external validity is also high
All of the given options
All of the given options
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Large number of respondents are best interviewed in a (an)__________ way
Unstructured
Structured
Semi structured
Open ended
Open ended
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Different factors affect the outcome of survey. In a study using a self completion
questionnaire, which of the following would probably NOT affect the outcome?
Interviewer training
Sample size
Incentive quality
Question wording
Interviewer training
Question No: 32 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The response rate of the internet survey can be increased due to:
Personality of the researcher
Maximum number of the questions 76 page
Sponsoring agency
All of the given options
Maximum number of the questions
What is the level of commitment of the officers in your organization?
What is the effect of organizational commitment on officer’s productivity?
What are the factors that affect commitment of the officers?
All of the given options.
Question No: 34 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following does not represent the characteristic of a good
quantitative problem statement?
Specifies the relationship between variables that the researcher expects to
find.
Defines the independent and dependent variables.
Conveys a sense of emerging design.
Specifies a research hypothesis to be tested.
Specifies the relationship between variables that the researcher expects to
find.
Question No: 35 ( Marks: 3 )
What is the primary difference between test/retest and internal consistency?
Question No: 36 ( Marks: 5 )
Researchers interviewed a group of people in a specific room. They were told
that only their interaction with each other and their point of views on a specific
issue are being studied but in fact high frequency sound waves were passed
through that room and their effect on human behavior was being observed.
Answer the following questions:
Is it an act of deception? Give reason for your choice.
Do you think it was necessary to deceive the respondent in this experiment?
What can the researcher do after the completion of research to rectify the
damage done to the respondents?
Question No: 37 ( Marks: 5 )
What is personal interviewing, how it can be conducted and at which places?
MIDTERM EXAMINATION
Fall 2009
STA630- Research Methods
Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Who, among the following, wrote the book "Research Methods for Business"?
Zikmund, W.
Sekaran, U.
Dessler, G.
Neuman, W.C.
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What does an empiricist believe?
All the knowledge that we have of life after death can be used in research.
Knowledge in the form of ‘facts’ should be gained through sensory
experience.
Research conducted within the British Empire was biased and unreliable.
Research should not always necessarily rely on the scientific methods.
Reference:
How do we actually know the things we know? People told us some of them, we
read about some of them and others we saw, or felt for ourselves. This is at the
heart of empiricism - we acquire knowledge through our sensory perceptions. It
follows that the empiricist approach to research is to gather information through
observation of the 'real' world and let theory emerge as a kind of conclusion. We
should not start out with a theory, an empiricist might say, and find facts which
seem to suit. Now, although this discussion might seem a bit too philosophical for
some and consequently, a bit esoteric, most social research depends on
'empirical' data. What this means is that most research studies include quite a bit
of primary data gathering and are not just limited to musing about what others
have said.
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Action research usually takes place in a single school because;
It is designed to answer questions about improving practice in a
particular setting.
It is difficult to secure permission to study students in multiple schools.
Teachers do not have the necessary skills to conduct research across multiple
settings.
Data collection methods used in action research are designed for single
settings.
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one Which
of the following is characteristic of action research?
Variables are tightly controlled.
Results are generalizable.
Results demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships.
Data are usually qualitative.
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements is TRUE for qualitative research question?
It asks a question about some process, or phenomenon to be explored.
It is generally an open-ended question.
It asks a question which may be open ended.
It asks a closed ended question.
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT an example of quantitative variable?
Age
Grade point average
Gender
Motivation
Variable
Method
Constant
Control group
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The cause variable or the one that identifies forces or conditions that act on
something else is known as:
Moderating variable
Independent variable
Categorical variable
Dependent variable
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one Which
of the following statements best defines hypothesis?
A quantitative study.
A tentative prediction of the results of the research.
A qualitative research design.
The operational definition of the study.
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the characteristic/s of Hypotheses in qualitative
research studies?
Hypotheses are very specific and stated prior to beginning the study.
Hypotheses are never used.
Hypotheses are often generated as the data are collected, interpreted, and
analyzed.
Hypotheses are always stated after the research study has been completed.
Informal test
Moderating test
Significance test
t-test
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following refers to "A review that only demonstrates familiarity with
an area is rarely published but it often is part of an educational program is which
type of review"?
Integrative review
Theoretical review
Self-study review
Historical review
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which one of the following tasks is NOT accomplished by theoretical framework?
Elaborate the relationship among the variables
Explain the logic underlying the relationship between the variables.
Describe the nature, and direction of the relationships among the variables.
Relates the previous studies.
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following strategies is useful when defining a particular research
question?
To clearly articulate the research question, to provide operational, definitions
and ensuring its testability.
To clearly articulate the research question, outlining the conditions in which the
phenomena of interest are to be investigated.
To provide operational definitions of the ideas or concepts involved in the
research.
Ensuring that their research question is empirically testable.
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What should the business researcher be aware of when signing a confidentiality
agreement?
Any clause which limits the length of a questionnaire.
Any clause which allows the company to comment on findings that will be
published.
Any clause which increases the level of access for the researcher.
Any clause which guarantees the anonymity of research participants.
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In a study of concept learning in first-graders, all of the following should happen,
except;
To help make the experience enjoyable, children should be given substantial
incentives to participate.
The children should be asked if they want to participate.
Teachers of the children in their classes should give informed consent.
Parents must give consent.
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is least likely to occur as an ethical problem with electronic
research?
Privacy could be invaded.
People are not likely to be able to stop once they have begun participating.
Debriefing could be avoided.
Informed consent cannot be completely monitored.
The reliance on instruments and procedures makes it high in ecological
validity.
The measurement process suggests a spurious and artificial sense of
accuracy.
It underestimates the similarities between objects in the natural and social
worlds.
It has no validity.
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is a characteristic of a standardized test?
The administration of the test is controlled carefully to ensure that all
examinees experience the same conditions.
The test is developed by experts to ensure it is technically sound.
The scores are interpreted in standard ways.
All of the given options
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Mr. Latif is measuring students' attitudes on a controversial topic. Which of the
following would you recommend he use to control for the potential problem of
students feeling the need to respond with socially acceptable responses?
Ensure construct validity
Allow anonymous responses
Ensure reliability
Ensure confidentiality
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one Which of
the following scales can measure the Temperature?
Nominal scale
Ordinal scale
Interval scale
All of the given options
Least powerful
Suggest no order
Provide categorical information
Provide magnitude of object
Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one Which of
the following is NOT the implication of Ordinal scale?
Characteristics of nominal scale
Rank the object
Does not provide magnitude of object
Provide rate
Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements is correct about validity and reliability?
When internal validity is high, external validity is low
When internal validity is high, there is no change in external validity
When internal validity is high, external validity is also high
All of the given options
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When you are confident that the experimental manipulation produced the
changes you measured in the dependent variable, your study probably has good
________ validity.
Internal
External
Causal
Construct
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Mr. Ali has conducted an extensive review of the literature and has deductively
reasoned a hypothesis about his problem on the basis of this review. Which type
of a research plan is Mr. Ali likely proposing?
Qualitative
Ethical
Both quantitative and qualitative
Quantitative
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is a legitimate purpose of a research plan?
It forces you to think through every aspect of a study.
It provides detailed procedures to guide the conduct of the study.
It provides clear roadmap of the study.
Writing a plan facilitates the evaluation of it.
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In the statement ‘Smoke badly destroys health of people’ what is the unit of
analysis?
Transportation
Individuals
Pollutants
Drugs
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
While studying supervisor-subordinate relationship in an organization, what is the
unit of analysis?
Individual
Dyad
Employer-employee
Organization
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following types of survey research is often used for program
evaluation or accreditation purposes?
Developmental surveys
Followup studies
Public opinion polls
No survey research is appropriate
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT an example of a problem with using survey
research to investigate behaviour?
Respondents tend to answer by giving the most socially desirable answer.
Respondents may inadvertently omit key terms in the question.
Respondents may not give an honest reply to what they see as a threatening
question.
Respondents may be unwilling to reveal information as they believe they are
likely to be identified.
Question No: 32 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What should the researcher do if they have achieved a low response rate?
Copy responses and paste them again.
Abandon the research project entirely.
Recognize and accept the possible limitations of a low response rate.
Fill in some more questionnaires themselves.
Question No: 33 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements is correct about questionnaire?
A questionnaire should run to at least twenty pages.
The questions should have no spaces between them so that the whole
questionnaire looks small.
Only questionnaires that are A3 size achieve high response rates.
Clear presentation is more important than overall size.
Question No: 34 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Critical decision area in questionnaire construction is which of the following?
Question content
Question wording
Response strategy
All of the given options
Introduction
Abstract
Results section
Limitations
Question No: 36 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is/are advantage(s) of the self-completed questionnaire?
Inability to confirm who completed the questionnaire
Its unsuitability for some kinds of respondents
Inability to ask many questions that are not directly relevant to the respondent
Easy to justify the answer
Question No: 37 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Time consumed in mall intercept interview is representing which of the following
type?
High
Moderate
Low
Nill
Question No: 38 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following similarity is found in Qualitative research and Survey
research?
Examine topics primarily from the participants' perspectives.
They are guided by predetermined variables to study.
They are descriptive research methods.
Have large sample sizes.
Question No: 39 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following represent a good qualitative problem statement?
Defines the independent and dependent variables.
conveys a sense of emerging design.
Specifies a research hypothesis to be tested.
Specifies the relationship between variables that the researcher expects to
find.
Question No: 40 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one Which of
the following makes research questions very crucial?
Guide your decisions about what data to collect and from where.
Help you decide which research area interests you.
Ensure that your findings have external validity.
Prevent you from thinking about research strategies.
Question No: 41 ( Marks: 10 )
How would you explain "Research Proposal" and its different sections?
MIDTERM EXAMINATION
Fall 2009
STA630- Research Methods (Session - 4)
Time: 60 min
Marks: 50
Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Under which of the following, research method is not applicable?
Business
Government offices
Imaginary worlds
Health care
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
An inductive logic is one that:
►Involves testing as explicitly defined hypothesis.
►Does not allow for findings to feed back into the body of knowledge.
►Uses quantitative methods whenever possible.
►Allows theory to emerge out of the data.
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Action research usually takes place in a single school because;
►It is designed to answer questions about improving practice in a
particular setting.
►It is difficult to secure permission to study students in multiple schools.
►Teachers do not have the necessary skills to conduct research across
multiple settings.
►Data collection methods used in action research are designed for single
settings.
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following terms is NOT characteristic of action research?
►Collaboration
►Control
►Change
►Commitment
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements is TRUE for qualitative research question?
►It asks a question about some process, or phenomenon to be explored.
►It is generally an open-ended question.
►It asks a question which may be open ended.
►It asks a closed ended question.
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
All of the following are true about theories, except:
►They organize and summarize existing knowledge about a topic.
►They are tentative until the facts prove them true.
►They provide possible explanations for the phenomenon under study.
►They lead to testable hypotheses through the process of deduction.
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following refers to"A condition or characteristic that can take on
different values or categories"?
►A constanttable
MIDTERM EXAMINATION
Fall 2009
STA630- Research Methods (Session – 5)
Time: 60 min
Marks: 50
Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Who, among the following, is the writer of Business Research Methods?
Neuman, W.C.
Zikmund, W.
Sekaran, U.
Dessler, G.
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the omparati is not the objective of a research for a student of
research methods course?
Conducting research by following certain steps
Preparing methodologies
Ability to convert problem into researchable question
Writing a book
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
An inductive logic is one that:
Involves testing as explicitly defined hypothesis.
Does not allow for findings to feed back into the body of knowledge.
Uses quantitative methods whenever possible.
Allows theory to emerge out of the data.
The usual application of inductive theory, however, is to allow theory to emerge
from our findings. We find an interesting question, we gather data on it and we
‘theorise’ from our findings. It may be that these‘theories’ are, in reality, simply
‘interesting insights’ rather than ‘grand theories’but they can be valuable for all
that. The methods used are “neither here nor there” although it may be more
likely for deductive theory to use quantitative methods and for inductive
approaches to use qualitative methods.
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Action research usually takes place in a single school because;
It is designed to answer questions about improving practice in a
particular setting.
It is difficult to secure permission to study students in multiple schools.
Teachers do not have the necessary skills to conduct research across
multiple settings.
Data collection methods used in action research are designed for single
settings.
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
‘There is no relationship between higher motivation level and higher efficiency’
is an example of which type of hypothesis?
Alternative
Correlational
Null
Research
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the meaning of the term “To read critically”?
Skimming through the material because most of it is just padding.
Evaluating what you read in terms of your own research questions.
Being willing to criticize what you read.
Taking an opposing point of view to the ideas and opinions expressed.
Developing a critical approach to your reading is not necessarily one of simply
criticizing the work of others” (Bryman and Bell, p.97). Not all of what you read
will be relevant to your task, so you must have a clear focus on your research
questions as you read. Taking notes of your reactions is advised, in addition to
content.
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which one of the following tasks is NOT accomplished by theoretical
framework?
Elaborate the relationship among the variables
Explain the logic underlying the relationship between the variables.
Describe the nature, and direction of the relationships among the
variables.
Relates the previous studies.
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one Deductive
research is useful in which of the following cases?
The researcher uses an existing theory to develop a hypothesis.
The researcher subjects a hypothesis to empirical scrutiny.
The researcher has to transform concepts within a hypothesis into
researchable entities.
Use of existing theory, empirical scrutiny, transformation of
concerpt.
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When the research starts from the effects and tracing the reasons back in time,
what does it called?
Case study
Experiment
Observation studies
Historical omparative research
Historical review traces the development of an issue over time. It traces the
development of an idea or shows how a particular issue or theory has evolved
over time. Researchers conduct historical review only on the most important
ideas in a field.
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When embarking upon a research project, which of the following issues should
be considered?
That the data from the study will be treated anonymously and
confidentially.
Coherent research question, pilot work and confidentially.
Pilot work should be carried out to assess the practical issues and
feasibility of the research.
That the research should be based upon a coherent research question.
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In a study of concept learning in first-graders, all of the following should
happen, except;
To help make the experience enjoyable, children should be given
substantial incentives to participate.
The children should be asked if they want to participate.
Teachers of the children in their classes should give informed consent.
Parents must give consent.
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the difference between measures and indicators?
Measures are unambiguous quantities, whereas indicators are
devised from common sense understandings.
Indicators have a more direct relationship to the underlying concept than
measures.
Measures are intuitively devised and then applied as if they were direct
indicators of a concept.
Indicators are unambiguous quantities, whereas measures are subjective
and value-laden.
Measures include things like demographics (of age, income and so on), which
can be counted. In fact, usually we think of measures as raw numbers. Often
though, what we want to research does not lend itself immediately to
straightforward calculation on numbers of things and how they vary but on
slightly vaguer concepts. Like job satisfaction, for example. In this case we need
a number of attitude statements, which, taken together, can be argued to
represent the concept. These separate statements are indicators and often
represent our ‘common sense’ understanding of a concept. Later, these can be
coded to turn them into numbers for statistical analysis.
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Norm-referenced test scores are interpreted relative to;
A standard or desired level of performance that describes what the
student knows.
Scores of others who have taken the test.
Specific skills mastered by the student.
The percentage of items answered correctly.
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following BEST describes an assessment that examines students’
ability to conduct a chemistry experiment in the lab?
Performance assessment
Interest inventory
Aptitude
Standardized test
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one Which of
the following is the implication of the ordinal scale?
Characteristics of nominal scale
Rank the object
Does not provide magnitude of object
All of the given options
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one Ordinal
levels of measurement assume which of the following?
Mutual exclusivity to all cases.
Exhaustiveness is applied to all cases.
Categories are rank-ordered and share some underlying quality.
All of the given options
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
❖ Inter-rater reliability
❖ Construct validity
❖ Internal validity
❖ Test-retest reliability
Test-Retest Reliability
Used to assess the consistency of a measure from one time to another.
Test-retest Reliability: Test-retest method of determining reliability involves
administering the
same scale to the same respondents at two separate times to test for
stability. If the measure is stable
over time, the test, administered under the same conditions each time,
should obtain similar results.
Question No: 22 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Survey research is cross-sectional and therefore:
❖ High in replicability but low in internal validity.
❖ High in internal validity but low in reliability.
❖ High in ecological validity but low in external validity.
❖ Low in reliability.
A survey attempts to discover the range of responses to a set of variables. The
researcher can give a lot of details concerning procedures for selecting
respondents, handling of the research instrument (perhaps a questionnaire) and
the analysis methodology. In this way, replicability can be almost guaranteed.
However, since the analysis can only pinpoint degrees of co-relation between
variables, causality remains in the realm of inference, meaning low (or no)
internal validity. Remember that internal validity depends on causality and
reliability on replicability.
Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Mr. Ali has conducted an extensive review of the literature and has deductively
reasoned a hypothesis about his problem on the basis of this review. Which type
of a research plan is Mr. Ali likely proposing?
❖ Qualitative
❖ Ethical
❖ Both quantitative and qualitative
❖ Quantitative
Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Mr. Ali has described in great detail the major steps he will follow in conducting
his study. This information is likely found in which section of his research plan?
❖ Introduction
❖ Participants
❖ Methodology
❖ Data Analysis
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is a legitimate purpose of a research plan?
❖ It forces you to think through every aspect of a study.
❖ It provides detailed procedures to guide the conduct of the study.
❖ It provides clear roadmap of the study.
❖ Writing a plan facilitates the evaluation of it.
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
While studying supervisor-subordinate relationship in an organization, what is
the unit of analysis?
❖ Individual
❖ Dyad
❖ Employer-employee
❖ Organization
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A study design in which the researcher might create_______ to establish causeand-effect relationship is called Experimental Design.
❖ An artificial setting, control some variables and manipulates the
independent variable
❖ A natural setting, control some variables and manipulates the dependent
variables
❖ An artificial setting, control some variables and manipulates the
dependent variable
❖ All of the given options
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT a necessary component of survey research?
❖ Triangulation of data
❖ Literature review
❖ Data analysis
❖ Validity
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following typically does NOT apply to observers in survey research
studies?
❖ They observe predetermined activities.
❖ They are participant observers.
❖ They obtain information by watching rather than asking.
❖ They must be careful not to influence the activities they observe.
Survey is a research technique in which information is gathered from a sample of
people using a questionnaire.(Hand outes page no 37)
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following kinds of survey research gathers data through
questionnaires administered once to the sample?
❖ Longitudinal, observation
❖ Cross-sectional, observation
❖ Longitudinal, self-report
❖ Cross-sectional, self-report
Answer Required
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT an example of a problem with using survey
research to investigate behaviour?
❖ Respondents tend to answer by giving the most socially desirable answer.
❖ Respondents may inadvertently omit key terms in the question.
❖ Respondents may not give an honest reply to what they see as a
threatening question.
❖ Respondents may be unwilling to reveal information as they believe
they are likely to be identified.
An advantage of social survey research is that the researcher can ensure that
the anonymity of the respondent is maintained by administering the same
questions to each individual.
Question No: 32 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What should the researcher do if they have achieved a low response rate?
❖ Copy responses and paste them again.
❖ Abandon the research project entirely.
❖ Recognize and accept the possible limitations of a low response
rate.
❖ Fill in some more questionnaires themselves.
Question No: 33 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When constructing a questionnaire, there are few principles to which you should
adhere. Which of the following is NOT one of those principles?
❖ Avoid using "leading" or "loaded" questions
❖ Avoid double-barreled questions
❖ Avoid ambiguity and confusion
❖ Avoid arranging questions in a sequence
Question No: 34 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
❖ Introduction
❖ Abstract
❖ Results section
❖ Limitations
Question No: 36 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Time consumed in mall intercept interview is representing which of the following
type?
❖ High
❖ Moderate
❖ Low
❖ Nill
MIDTERM EXAMINATION
Fall 2009
STA630- Research Methods (Session - 4)
Time: 60 min
Marks: 50
Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Under which of the following, research method is not applicable?
❖ Business
❖ Government offices
❖ Imaginary worlds
❖ Health care
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
An inductive logic is one that:
►Involves testing as explicitly defined hypothesis.
►Does not allow for findings to feed back into the body of knowledge.
►Uses quantitative methods whenever possible.
►Allows theory to emerge out of the data.
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Action research usually takes place in a single school because;
►It is designed to answer questions about improving practice in a
particular setting.
►It is difficult to secure permission to study students in multiple schools.
►Teachers do not have the necessary skills to conduct research across
multiple settings.
►Data collection methods used in action research are designed for single
settings.
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following terms is NOT characteristic of action research?
►Collaboration
►Control
►Change
►Commitment
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements is TRUE for qualitative research question?
►It asks a question about some process, or phenomenon to be explored.
►It is generally an open-ended question.
►It asks a question which may be open ended.
►It asks a closed ended question.
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
All of the following are true about theories, except:
►They organize and summarize existing knowledge about a topic.
►They are tentative until the facts prove them true.
►They provide possible explanations for the phenomenon under study.
►They lead to testable hypotheses through the process of deduction.
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following refers to"A condition or characteristic that can take on
different values or categories"?
►A constant
►A variable
►A cause and effect relationship
►A descriptive relationship
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the opposite of a variable?
►A constant
►An extraneous variable
►A dependent variable
►A data set
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
“Downsizing in an organization in future is associated with the level of job
security of the present employee in an organization” is an example of which of
the following?
►Correlational hypothesis
►Descriptive hypothesis
►Explanatory hypothesis
►Non Descriptive hypothesis
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Why do you need to review the existing literature?
❖ To give your dissertation a proper academic appearance, with lots of
references.
❖ Because without it, you could never reach the required word-count.
❖ To find out what is already known about your area of interest.
❖ To help in your general study.
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following functions is performed by theoretical framework?
❖ Elaborates the relationship among the variables.
❖ Explains the logic underlying these relationships.
❖ Describes the nature, and direction of the relationships.
❖ All of the given options.
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Why is the statement” What are the effects of extracurricular activities on learning
development of school age children” not a good statement of a quantitative
research question?
❖ Because the study would be too difficult to do given all the different
extracurricular activities.
❖ Because the statement was not specific enough to provide an understanding
of the variables being investigated.
❖ Because there are not enough school age children engaged in
extracurricular activities to conduct the study.
❖ Because there is no connection between extracurricular activities and learning
development.
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When the research starts from the effects and tracing the reasons back in time,
what does it called?
❖ Case study
❖ Experiment
❖ Observation studies
❖ Historical comparitive research
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following questions might invade the privacy of a research
participant?
❖ How long have you worked for this organisation?
❖ What is your home address?
❖ What do you think about your direct line manager?
❖ What happened during your last performance appraisal?
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements would you be least likely to find in an informed
consent form?
❖ Your data will be coded in a way that will protect your identity.
❖ This study has been approved by the university’s Institutional Review Board.
❖ The full purpose of the study will be explained to you at the end of the session
and the complete results of the study will be available to you when the study is
over.
❖ There is no penalty for not starting the study, but once you begin, you
are obligated to complete the session.
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
All of the following are part of the ethics code for animal research, except;
❖ The researcher must be an expert about the species being studied.
❖ Procedures using reinforcement are preferred over those using punishment.
❖ Animal studies that are purely educational in purpose cannot be done.
❖ If the animal must be killed at the end of the study, a painless procedure
must be used.
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following terms represents the most general, broad concept?
❖ Test
❖ Assessment
❖ Measurement
❖ Instrument
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following types of scales is likely measuring students' deeply held
beliefs about ideas, people, or objects?
❖ The Study of Values
❖ The Attitudes toward School Scale
❖ The Strong Campbell Interest Inventory
❖ The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following BEST describes an assessment that examines students'
ability to conduct a chemistry experiment in the lab?
❖ Performance assessment
❖ Interest inventory
❖ Aptitude
❖ Standardized test
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following functions is performed by the Nominal scale?
❖ Categorize
❖ Distance
❖ Order
❖ Unique origin
Question No: 22 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following functions is performed by the Ratio scale?
❖ Categorize
❖ Distance
❖ Order
❖ Unique origin
Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the implication of the ordinal scale?
❖ Characteristics of nominal scale
❖ Rank the object
❖ Does not provide magnitude of object
❖ All of the given options
Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which one of the following is not a type of scales used in measurement of
concepts?
❖ Normal Scale
❖ Ordinal Scale
❖ Interval scale
❖ Ratio Scale
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following scales can measure the Temperature?
❖ Nominal scale
❖ Ordinal scale
❖ Interval scale
❖ All of the given options
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following effect in internal validity occurs when test units with
extreme scores move closer to the average score during the course of the
experiment.
❖ Statistical regression
❖ Selection Bias
❖ Maturation
❖ Instrumentation
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When you are confident that the experimental manipulation produced the
changes you measured in the dependent variable, your study probably has good
________ validity.
❖ Internal
❖ External
❖ Causal
❖ Construct
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following can be achieved by a longitudinal research design?
❖ Mapping of change in an organization.
❖ The change in employment relations over a number of years.
❖ The experiences of employees who begin work on the same day.
❖ Mapping of change, change in employment relations and experiences of
employees.
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Research may differ along a series of dimensions. Which of the following may be
applied to this statement?
❖ The type of data collected.
❖ The data-collection technique.
❖ The level of manipulation used to elicit data collection.
❖ All of the given options.
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statement refers to cross-sectional design?
❖ A comparison of two or more variables over a long period of time
❖ The collection of data from more than one case at one moment in time
❖ One that is devised when the researcher is in a bad mood
❖ A study of one particular section of society, e.g. the middle classes
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is TRUE for research plan?
❖ It should be detailed.
❖ It should be given to others for review and comments.
❖ It sets out the rationale for a research study.
❖ All of the given options
Question No: 32 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The studies in which researchers do not interfere with natural environment are:
❖ Lab experiments
❖ Ex Post Facto
❖ Contrived
❖ Field
Question No: 33 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following types of survey research is often used for program
evaluation or accreditation purposes?
❖ Developmental surveys
❖ Followup studies
❖ Public opinion polls
❖ No survey research is appropriate
Question No: 34 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is not an advantage of the self-completion questionnaire
over the structured interview?
❖ It is cheaper to administer.
❖ It is quicker to administer.
❖ It is easier to prompt the interviewee.
❖ It is easier to remove interviewer effects.
Question No: 35 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is most beneficial to read in an article?
❖ Methods
❖ Introduction
❖ Figures
❖ References
Question No: 36 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following surveys are more impersonal than face-to-face interviews?
❖ Mail
❖ Recorded Interview
❖ Focus group
❖ Telephonic
Question No: 37 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following represent a good qualitative problem statement?
❖ Defines the independent and dependent variables.
❖ Conveys a sense of emerging design.
❖ Specifies a research hypothesis to be tested.
❖ Specifies the relationship between variables that the researcher expects to
find.
Question No: 38 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is to convince reviewers that the researcher is capable of
successfully conducting the proposed research project?
❖ Literature review
❖ Research question
❖ Research proposal
❖ Research project
Question No: 39 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is representing the responsibility of a respondent to
provide true information?
❖ Right
❖ Obligation
❖ Right as well as obligation
❖ Neither right nor obligation
Question No: 40 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following refers to research supported by measurable evidence?
❖ Opinion
❖ Speculation
❖ Empiricism
❖ Rationalism
Question No: 41 ( Marks: 10 )
Being a researcher what techniques you would use to narrow down a broader
problem into an investigable research question?
Answer:
Which Technique must use by researcher:
In my point of view researcher should use the Quantitative Research.
Quantitative Research
This research is used mostly even in social sciences, political science and in
anthropology. Quantitative researchers 1st use deductive route. They start with
abstract idea, follow with measurement procedure and the end with that data
that finalize the ideas.
There are two type of date produced by Quantitative Research:
❖ SOFT DATA:
Impressions, Words, Photo, Symbols show interpretive approach. The main
aim of this is to develop an understanding of social life and come to know
how people construct meanings in natural life.
B) HORD DATA:
It is positive approach to search in Researchers speech variables hard language
and hypotheses. The researcher should try to establish causality.
Researcher to be well organized and prepared. It also means that the steps of
project are not entirely predetermined but serve as an approximate guide or road
map. Here is just the listing of these steps:
A proposal also very important for quantitative research has most of the parts of a
research report, a title, abstract, a literature review, a method or design section, problem
statement. It lacks results, discussion, and conclusions section. The proposal has a plan
for the data collection and after that analysis the data. It mostly include a schedule of the
steps to be undertaken and an estimate of the time required for each step.
MIDTERM EXAMINATION
Fall 2009
STA630- Research Methods
Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Who, among the following, wrote the book "Research Methods for Business"?
❖ Zikmund, W.
❖ Sekaran, U.
❖ Dessler, G.
❖ Neuman, W.C.
Google Search
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What does an empiricist believe?
❖ All the knowledge that we have of life after death can be used in research.
❖ Knowledge in the form of ‘facts’ should be gained through sensory experience.
❖ Research conducted within the British Empire was biased and unreliable.
❖ Research should not always necessarily rely on the scientific methods.
Reference
Page No. 05
Two power bases of scientific knowledge:
❖ Empiricism i.e. sensory experiences or observation, and
❖ Rationalism i.e. the logical explanations for regularity and then consequent ional
argumentation for making generalizations (theory).
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Action research usually takes place in a single school because;
❖ It is designed to answer questions about improving practice in a particular setting.
❖ It is difficult to secure permission to study students in multiple schools.
❖ Teachers do not have the necessary skills to conduct research across multiple
settings.
❖ Data collection methods used in action research are designed for single settings.
Reference:
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one Which of
the following is characteristic of action research?
o Variables are tightly controlled.
o Results are generalizable.
❖ Results demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships.
o Data are usually qualitative.
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements is TRUE for qualitative research question?
❖ It asks a question about some process, or phenomenon to be explored.
❖ It is generally an open-ended question.
❖ It asks a question which may be open ended.
❖ It asks a closed ended question.
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT an example of quantitative variable?
❖ Age
❖ Grade point average
❖ Gender
❖ Motivation
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In research, something that does not “vary” is know n as:
❖ Variable
❖ Method
❖ Constant
❖ Control group
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The cause variable or the one that identifies forces or conditions that act on something
else is known as:
❖ Moderating variable
❖ Independent variable
❖ Categorical variable
❖ Dependent variable
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one Which of
the following statements best defines hypothesis?
❖ A quantitative study.
❖ A tentative prediction of the results of the research.
❖ A qualitative research design.
❖ The operational definition of the study.
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the characteristic/s of Hypotheses in qualitative research
studies?
❖ Hypotheses are very specific and stated prior to beginning the study.
❖ Hypotheses are never used.
❖ Hypotheses are often generated as the data are collected, interpreted, and
analyzed.
❖ Hypotheses are always stated after the research study has been completed.
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Hypothesis test may also be called as
❖ Informal test
❖ Moderating test
❖ Significance test
❖ t-test
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following refers to "A review that only demonstrates familiarity with an
area is rarely published but it often is part of an educational program is which type of
review"?
❖ Integrative review
❖ Theoretical review
❖ Self-study review
❖ Historical review
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which one of the following tasks is NOT accomplished by theoretical framework?
❖ Elaborate the relationship among the variables
❖ Explain the logic underlying the relationship between the variables.
❖ Describe the nature, and direction of the relationships among the variables.
❖ Relates the previous studies.
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following strategies is useful when defining a particular research question?
❖ To clearly articulate the research question, to provide operational, definitions and
ensuring its testability.
❖ To clearly articulate the research question, outlining the conditions in which the
phenomena of interest are to be investigated.
❖ To provide operational definitions of the ideas or concepts involved in the
research.
❖ Ensuring that their research question is empirically testable.
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What should the business researcher be aware of when signing a confidentiality
agreement?
❖ Any clause which limits the length of a questionnaire.
❖ Any clause which allows the company to comment on findings that will be
published.
❖ Any clause which increases the level of access for the researcher.
❖ Any clause which guarantees the anonymity of research participants.
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In a study of concept learning in first-graders, all of the following should happen,
except;
❖ To help make the experience enjoyable, children should be given substantial
incentives to participate.
❖ The children should be asked if they want to participate.
❖ Teachers of the children in their classes should give informed consent.
❖ Parents must give consent.
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is least likely to occur as an ethical problem with electronic
research?
❖ Privacy could be invaded.
❖ People are not likely to be able to stop once they have begun participating.
❖ Debriefing could be avoided.
❖ Informed consent cannot be completely monitored
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Quantitative research has been criticised because:
❖ The reliance on instruments and procedures makes it high in ecological validity.
❖ The measurement process suggests a spurious and artificial sense of accuracy.
❖ It underestimates the similarities between objects in the natural and social worlds.
❖ It has no validity.
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is a characteristic of a standardized test?
❖ The administration of the test is controlled carefully to ensure that all examinees
experience the same conditions.
❖ The test is developed by experts to ensure it is technically sound.
❖ The scores are interpreted in standard ways.
❖ All of the given options
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Mr. Latif is measuring students' attitudes on a controversial topic. Which of the
following would you recommend he use to control for the potential problem of students
feeling the need to respond with socially acceptable responses?
❖ Ensure construct validity
❖ Allow anonymous responses
❖ Ensure reliability
❖ Ensure confidentiality
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one Which of
the following scales can measure the Temperature?
❖ Nominal scale
❖ Ordinal scale
❖ Interval scale
❖ All of the given options
Question No: 22 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Following are the properties of nominal scale, except;
❖ Least powerful
❖ Suggest no order
❖ Provide categorical information
❖ Provide magnitude of object
Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT the implication of Ordinal scale?
❖ Characteristics of nominal scale
❖ Rank the object
❖ Does not provide magnitude of object
❖ Provide rate
Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements is correct about validity and reliability?
❖ When internal validity is high, external validity is low
❖ When internal validity is high, there is no change in external validity
❖ When internal validity is high, external validity is also high
❖ All of the given options
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When you are confident that the experimental manipulation produced the changes you
measured in the dependent variable, your study probably has good ________ validity.
❖ Internal
❖ External
❖ Causal
❖ Construct
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Mr. Ali has conducted an extensive review of the literature and has deductively reasoned
a hypothesis about his problem on the basis of this review. Which type of a research plan
is Mr. Ali likely proposing?
o Qualitative
o Ethical
o Both quantitative and qualitative
❖ Quantitative
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is a legitimate purpose of a research plan?
❖ It forces you to think through every aspect of a study.
❖ It provides detailed procedures to guide the conduct of the study.
❖ It provides clear roadmap of the study.
❖ Writing a plan facilitates the evaluation of it.
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In the statement ‘Smoke badly destroys health of people’ what is the unit of analysis?
❖ Transportation
❖ Individuals
❖ Pollutants
❖ Drugs
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
While studying supervisor-subordinate relationship in an organization, what is the unit of
analysis?
❖ Individual
❖ Dyad
❖ Employer-employee
❖ Organization
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following types of survey research is often used for program evaluation or
accreditation purposes?
❖ Developmental surveys
❖ Followup studies
❖ Public opinion polls
❖ No survey research is appropriate
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT an example of a problem with using survey research to
investigate behaviour?
❖ Respondents tend to answer by giving the most socially desirable answer.
❖ Respondents may inadvertently omit key terms in the question.
❖ Respondents may not give an honest reply to what they see as a threatening
question.
❖ Respondents may be unwilling to reveal information as they believe they are
likely to be identified.
Question No: 32 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What should the researcher do if they have achieved a low response rate?
❖ Copy responses and paste them again.
❖ Abandon the research project entirely.
❖ Recognize and accept the possible limitations of a low response rate.
❖ Fill in some more questionnaires themselves.
Question No: 33 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements is correct about questionnaire?
❖ A questionnaire should run to at least twenty pages.
❖ The questions should have no spaces between them so that the whole
questionnaire looks small.
❖ Only questionnaires that are A3 size achieve high response rates.
❖ Clear presentation is more important than overall size.
Question No: 34 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Critical decision area in questionnaire construction is which of the following?
❖ Question content
❖ Question wording
❖ Response strategy
❖ All of the given options
Question No: 35 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one The
most critical area of an article to read is;
❖ Introduction
❖ Abstract
❖ Results section
❖ Limitations
Question No: 36 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is/are advantage(s) of the self-completed questionnaire?
❖ Inability to confirm who completed the questionnaire
❖ Its unsuitability for some kinds of respondents
❖ Inability to ask many questions that are not directly relevant to the respondent
❖ Easy to justify the ans
wer
Question No: 37 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Time consumed in mall intercept interview is representing which of the following type?
❖ High
❖ Moderate
❖ Low
❖ Nill
Question No: 38 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following similarity is found in Qualitative research and Survey research?
❖ Examine topics primarily from the participants' perspectives.
❖ They are guided by predetermined variables to study.
❖ They are descriptive research methods.
❖ Have large sample sizes.
Question No: 39 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following represent a good qualitative problem statement?
❖ Defines the independent and dependent variables.
❖ conveys a sense of emerging design.
❖ Specifies a research hypothesis to be tested.
❖ Specifies the relationship between variables that the researcher expects to find.
Question No: 40 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following makes research questions very crucial?
❖ Guide your decisions about what data to collect and from where.
❖ Help you decide which research area interests you.
❖ Ensure that your findings have external validity.
❖ Prevent you from thinking about research strategies.
Question No: 41 ( Marks: 10 )
How would you explain "Research Proposal" and its different sections?
MIDTERM EXAMINATION
Fall 2009
STA630- Research Methods
Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Who, among the following, wrote the book "Research Methods for Business"?
❖ Zikmund, W.
❖ Sekaran, U.
❖ Dessler, G.
❖ Neuman, W.C.
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What does an empiricist believe?
❖ All the knowledge that we have of life after death can be used in research.
❖ Knowledge in the form of ‘facts’ should be gained through sensory
experience.
❖ Research conducted within the British Empire was biased and unreliable.
❖ Research should not always necessarily rely on the scientific methods.
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Action research usually takes place in a single school because;
❖ It is designed to answer questions about improving practice in a
particular setting.
❖ It is difficult to secure permission to study students in multiple schools.
❖ Teachers do not have the necessary skills to conduct research across multiple
settings.
❖ Data collection methods used in action research are designed for single
settings.
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one Which
of the following is characteristic of action research?
❖ Variables are tightly controlled.
❖ Results are generalizable.
❖ Results demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships.
❖ Data are usually qualitative.
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements is TRUE for qualitative research question?
❖ It asks a question about some process, or phenomenon to be explored.
❖ It is generally an open-ended question.
❖ It asks a question which may be open ended.
❖ It asks a closed ended question.
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT an example of quantitative variable?
❖ Age
❖ Grade point average
❖ Gender
❖ Motivation
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In research, something that does not “vary” is known as:
❖ Variable
❖ Method
❖ Constant
❖ Control group
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The cause variable or the one that identifies forces or conditions that act on
something else is known as:
❖ Moderating variable
❖ Independent variable
❖ Categorical variable
❖ Dependent variable
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one Which
of the following statements best defines hypothesis?
❖ A quantitative study.
❖ A tentative prediction of the results of the research.
❖ A qualitative research design.
❖ The operational definition of the study.
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the characteristic/s of Hypotheses in qualitative
research studies?
❖ Hypotheses are very specific and stated prior to beginning the study.
❖ Hypotheses are never used.
❖ Hypotheses are often generated as the data are collected, interpreted, and
analyzed.
❖ Hypotheses are always stated after the research study has been completed.
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Hypothesis test may also be called as:
❖ Informal test
❖ Moderating test
❖ Significance test
❖ t-test
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following refers to "A review that only demonstrates familiarity with
an area is rarely published but it often is part of an educational program is which
type of review"?
❖ Integrative review
❖ Theoretical review
❖ Self-study review
❖ Historical review
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which one of the following tasks is NOT accomplished by theoretical framework?
❖ Elaborate the relationship among the variables
❖ Explain the logic underlying the relationship between the variables.
❖ Describe the nature, and direction of the relationships among the variables.
❖ Relates the previous studies.
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following strategies is useful when defining a particular research
question?
❖ To clearly articulate the research question, to provide operational, definitions
and ensuring its testability.
❖ To clearly articulate the research question, outlining the conditions in which
the phenomena of interest are to be investigated.
❖ To provide operational definitions of the ideas or concepts involved in the
research.
❖ Ensuring that their research question is empirically testable.
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What should the business researcher be aware of when signing a confidentiality
agreement?
❖ Any clause which limits the length of a questionnaire.
❖ Any clause which allows the company to comment on findings that will be
published.
❖ Any clause which increases the level of access for the researcher.
❖ Any clause which guarantees the anonymity of research participants.
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In a study of concept learning in first-graders, all of the following should happen,
except;
❖ To help make the experience enjoyable, children should be given substantial
incentives to participate.
❖ The children should be asked if they want to participate.
❖ Teachers of the children in their classes should give informed consent.
❖ Parents must give consent.
No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is least likely to occur as an ethical problem with electronic
research?
❖ Privacy could be invaded.
❖ People are not likely to be able to stop once they have begun participating.
❖ Debriefing could be avoided.
❖ Informed consent cannot be completely monitored.
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Quantitative research has been criticised because:
❖ The reliance on instruments and procedures makes it high in ecological
validity.
❖ The measurement process suggests a spurious and artificial sense of
accuracy.
❖ It underestimates the similarities between objects in the natural and social
worlds.
❖ It has no validity.
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is a characteristic of a standardized test?
❖ The administration of the test is controlled carefully to ensure that all
examinees experience the same conditions.
❖ The test is developed by experts to ensure it is technically sound.
❖ The scores are interpreted in standard ways.
❖ All of the given options
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Mr. Latif is measuring students' attitudes on a controversial topic. Which of the
following would you recommend he use to control for the potential problem of
students feeling the need to respond with socially acceptable responses?
❖ Ensure construct validity
❖ Allow anonymous responses
❖ Ensure reliability
❖ Ensure confidentiality
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one Which of
the following scales can measure the Temperature?
❖ Nominal scale
❖ Ordinal scale
❖ Interval scale
❖ All of the given options
❖ Least powerful
❖ Suggest no order
❖ Provide categorical information
❖ Provide magnitude of object
Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one Which of
the following is NOT the implication of Ordinal scale?
❖ Characteristics of nominal scale
❖ Rank the object
❖ Does not provide magnitude of object
❖ Provide rate
Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements is correct about validity and reliability?
❖ When internal validity is high, external validity is low
❖ When internal validity is high, there is no change in external validity
❖ When internal validity is high, external validity is also high
❖ All of the given options
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When you are confident that the experimental manipulation produced the
changes you measured in the dependent variable, your study probably has good
________ validity.
❖ Internal
❖ External
❖ Causal
❖ Construct
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Mr. Ali has conducted an extensive review of the literature and has deductively
reasoned a hypothesis about his problem on the basis of this review. Which type
of a research plan is Mr. Ali likely proposing?
❖ Qualitative
❖ Ethical
❖ Both quantitative and qualitative
❖ Quantitative
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is a legitimate purpose of a research plan?
❖ It forces you to think through every aspect of a study.
❖ It provides detailed procedures to guide the conduct of the study.
❖ It provides clear roadmap of the study.
❖ Writing a plan facilitates the evaluation of it.
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In the statement ‘Smoke badly destroys health of people’ what is the unit of
analysis?
❖ Transportation
❖ Individuals
❖ Pollutants
❖ Drugs
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
While studying supervisor-subordinate relationship in an organization, what is the
unit of analysis?
❖ Individual
❖ Dyad
❖ Employer-employee
❖ Organization
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following types of survey research is often used for program
evaluation or accreditation purposes?
❖ Developmental surveys
❖ Followup studies
❖ Public opinion polls
❖ No survey research is appropriate
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT an example of a problem with using survey
research to investigate behaviour?
❖ Respondents tend to answer by giving the most socially desirable answer.
❖ Respondents may inadvertently omit key terms in the question.
❖ Respondents may not give an honest reply to what they see as a threatening
question.
❖ Respondents may be unwilling to reveal information as they believe they are
likely to be identified.
Question No: 32 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What should the researcher do if they have achieved a low response rate?
❖ Copy responses and paste them again.
❖ Abandon the research project entirely.
❖ Recognize and accept the possible limitations of a low response rate.
❖ Fill in some more questionnaires themselves.
Question No: 33 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements is correct about questionnaire?
❖ A questionnaire should run to at least twenty pages.
❖ The questions should have no spaces between them so that the whole
questionnaire looks small.
❖ Only questionnaires that are A3 size achieve high response rates.
❖ Clear presentation is more important than overall size.
Question No: 34 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Critical decision area in questionnaire construction is which of the following?
❖ Question content
❖ Question wording
❖ Response strategy
❖ All of the given options
Question No: 35 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one The
most critical area of an article to read is;
❖ Introduction
❖ Abstract
❖ Results section
❖ Limitations
Question No: 36 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is/are advantage(s) of the self-completed questionnaire?
❖ Inability to confirm who completed the questionnaire
❖ Its unsuitability for some kinds of respondents
❖ Inability to ask many questions that are not directly relevant to the respondent
❖ Easy to justify the answer
Question No: 37 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Time consumed in mall intercept interview is representing which of the following
type?
❖ High
❖ Moderate
❖ Low
❖ Nill
Question No: 38 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following similarity is found in Qualitative research and Survey
research?
❖ Examine topics primarily from the participants' perspectives.
❖ They are guided by predetermined variables to study.
❖ They are descriptive research methods.
❖ Have large sample sizes.
Question No: 39 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following represent a good qualitative problem statement?
❖ Defines the independent and dependent variables.
❖ conveys a sense of emerging design.
❖ Specifies a research hypothesis to be tested.
❖ Specifies the relationship between variables that the researcher expects to
find.
Question No: 40 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one Which of
the following makes research questions very crucial?
❖ Guide your decisions about what data to collect and from where.
❖ Help you decide which research area interests you.
❖ Ensure that your findings have external validity.
❖ Prevent you from thinking about research strategies.
Question No: 41 ( Marks: 10 )
How would you explain "Research Proposal" and its different sections?
MIDTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2010
STA630- Research Methods (Session - 3)
Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Who, among the following, is the writer of Business Research Methods?
❖ Neuman, W.C.
❖ Zikmund, W.
❖ Sekaran, U.
❖ Dessler, G.
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the folowing is the basis of the Scientific Method?
❖ To test hypothesis in conditions that is conducive to its success.
❖ To formulate a research problem and disprove the hypothesis.
❖ To formulate a research problem, test the hypothesis in carefully controlled
conditions that challenge the hypothesis.
❖ To test hypothesis and if they are disproved, they should be abandoned completely.
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The action research method is depicting as a strengthening process because;
❖ Data collection continues throughout data analysis.
❖ The results are analyzed and used by other researchers to conduct additional
investigations of the topic.
❖ The action researcher continues to study other topics of interest after the initial study
is completed.
❖ The process continues even after the data are collected and analyzed, and actions are
taken based on findings.
❖ Data collection continues throughout data analysis.
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Quantitative researcher's pre-occupation with generalization is an attempt to:
❖ Develop the law like findings of the natural sciences.
❖ Boost their chances of publication.
❖ Enhance the internal validity of their research.
❖ Demonstrate the complex techniques of statistical analysis.
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
“Income distribution of employees” in a specific or ganization is an example of which
type of variable?
❖ Discontinuous variable
❖ Dependent variable
❖ Continuous variable
❖ Independent variable
❖ Informal test
❖ Moderating test
❖ Significance test
❖ t-test
Significance test
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A formal statement of the research question or “pur pose of research study” generally:
❖ Is made prior to the literature review
❖ Is made after the literature review
❖ Will help guide the research process
❖ Is made before or after literature review
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What should the business researcher be aware of when signing a confidentiality
agreement?
❖ Any clause which limits the length of a questionnaire.
❖ Any clause which allows the company to comment on findings that will be
published.
❖ Any clause which increases the level of access for the researcher.
❖ Any clause which guarantees the anonymity of research participants.
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Quantitative research has been criticised because:
❖ The reliance on instruments and procedures makes it high in ecological validity.
❖ The measurement process suggests a spurious and artificial sense of accuracy.
❖ It underestimates the similarities between objects in the natural and social worlds.
❖ It has no validity.
❖ The measurement process suggests a spurious and artificial sense of accuracy.
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following BEST describes an assessment that examines students' ability to
conduct a chemistry experiment in the lab?
❖ Aptitude
❖ Interest inventory
❖ Performance assessment
❖ Standardized test
❖ Aptitude
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
One of the preoccupations of quantitative researchers is with generalization, which is a
sign of:
❖ External validity
❖ Internal reliability
❖ External reliability
❖ Internal validity
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A study design in which the researcher might create_______ to establish cause-and-effect
relationship is called Experimental Design.
❖ An artificial setting, control some variables and manipulates the independent
variable
❖ A natural setting, control some variables and manipulates the dependent variables
❖ An artificial setting, control some variables and manipulates the dependent variable
❖ All of the given options
❖ An artificial setting, control some variables and manipulates the independent variable
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following types of survey research is often used for program evaluation or
accreditation purposes?
❖ Developmental surveys
❖ Followup studies
❖ Public opinion polls
❖ No survey research is appropriate
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What should the researcher do if they have achieved a low response rate?
❖ Copy responses and paste them again.
❖ Abandon the research project entirely.
❖ Recognize and accept the possible limitations of a low response rate.
❖ Fill in some more questionnaires themselves.
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following characteristic of the scientific method is defined as the
confirmation or refutation of the observation through the scientific method by using
sensory experience?
❖ Empirical
❖ Verifiable
❖ Observable
❖ Cumulative
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following study requires the collection of data at one point in time from a
large number of respondents?
❖ Case study
❖ Cross-sectional study
❖ All of the given options
❖ Longitudinal study
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Basic research can also be called as
❖ Practical research
❖ Fundamental Research
❖ Action research
❖ Assessment research
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Methodological reviews can be best explained as:
❖ Evaluation of the previous research methodologies used by the researchers page 27
❖ Assessment of the models built by the previous researchers
❖ Reviewing the review in the systematic manner
❖ Studying the specific context under study
❖ Evaluation of the previous research methodologies used by the researchers
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The review that presents the current state of knowledge by combining different reports is
called:
❖ Self study review
❖ Theoretical review
❖ Systematic review
❖ Integrative review
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The best method to narrow down a topic is to:
❖ Develop theoretical framework
❖ Review literature
❖ Test a hypothesis
❖ Conduct a survey
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is not the part of the funded research proposal?
❖ Research strategies
❖ Significance of the research
❖ Research Team
❖ Theoretical framework
Question No: 22 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Why should we study research for our degree requirement?
❖ Because we live in a society that is driven by research.
❖ To improve our critical thinking skills.
❖ To learn how to critically evaluate published research.
❖ All of the given options
Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is elaborative exploratory pilot study?
❖ Focus group discussion 7 page
❖ Literature review
❖ Document analysis
❖ Survey
Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is true for field experiment?
❖ It is difficult to control the external factors to research
❖ It is possible to establish perfect cause and effect relationship
❖ Survey method is not appropriate
❖ It is similar to lab experiment
❖ It is possible to establish perfect cause and effect relationship
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the BEST hypothesis?
❖ Students taking formative quizzes will perform better on exams at the end of the
chapter than students not taking these quizzes.
❖ Taller students will have higher test scores than shorter students.
❖ Students taught in a cooperative group setting should do better than students in a
traditional class.
❖ Students using laptops will do well.
❖ Students taught in a cooperative group setting should do better than students in a
traditional class.
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
‘There is no relationship between motivation level and efficiency’ is an example of which
type of hypothesis?
❖ Alternative
❖ Correlational
❖ Null
❖ Research
❖ Null
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is not a characteristic of the operational definition?
❖ It divides a concept into the empirical measures
❖ It translates a broad phenomenon into specific concepts page 18
❖ It delineates the antecedents of the concept being operationalized
❖ It provides the working definition of the concept
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following types of scales is likely measuring students' deeply held beliefs
about ideas, people, or objects?
❖ The Study of Values
❖ The Attitudes toward School Scale
❖ The Strong Campbell Interest Inventory
❖ The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
❖ The Attitudes toward School Scale
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements is correct about validity and reliability?
❖ When internal validity is high, external validity is low
❖ When internal validity is high, there is no change in external validity
❖ When internal validity is high, external validity is also high
❖ All of the given options
❖ All of the given options
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Large number of respondents are best interviewed in a (an)__________ way
❖ Unstructured
❖ Structured
❖ Semi structured
❖ Open ended
Open ended
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Different factors affect the outcome of survey. In a study using a self completion
questionnaire, which of the following would probably NOT affect the outcome?
❖ Interviewer training
❖ Sample size
❖ Incentive quality
❖ Question wording
❖ Interviewer training
Question No: 32 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The response rate of the internet survey can be increased due to:
❖ Personality of the researcher
❖ Maximum number of the questions 76 page
❖ Sponsoring agency
❖ All of the given options
❖ Maximum number of the questions
Question No: 33 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following hypothesis is a descriptive one?
❖ What is the level of commitment of the officers in your organization?
❖ What is the effect of organizational commitment on officer’s productivity?
❖ What are the factors that affect commitment of the officers?
❖ All of the given options.
Question No: 34 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following does not represent the characteristic of a good quantitative
problem statement?
❖ Specifies the relationship between variables that the researcher expects to find.
❖ Defines the independent and dependent variables.
❖ Conveys a sense of emerging design.
❖ Specifies a research hypothesis to be tested.
❖ Specifies the relationship between variables that the researcher expects to find.
Question No: 35 ( Marks: 3 )
What is the primary difference between test/retest and internal consistency?
Question No: 36 ( Marks: 5 )
Researchers interviewed a group of people in a specific room. They were told that only
their interaction with each other and their point of views on a specific issue are being
studied but in fact high frequency sound waves were passed through that room and their
effect on human behavior was being observed.
Answer the following questions:
Is it an act of deception? Give reason for your choice.
Do you think it was necessary to deceive the respondent in this experiment?
What can the researcher do after the completion of research to rectify the damage done to
the respondents?
Question No: 37 ( Marks: 5 )
What is personal interviewing, how it can be conducted and at which places?
Midterm Examination
Fall 2009
STA630 Research Methods (Session – 4)
Marks: 50
Question No:1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
On which of the following, Scientific knowledge mostly relies?
❖ Identification of events
❖ Logical understanding
❖ Prior knowledge
❖ All of the given options
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What does an empiricist believe?
All the knowledge that we have of life after death can be used in research.
Knowledge in the form of ‘facts’ should be gained t hrough sensory experience.
Research conducted within the British Empire was biased and unreliable.
Research should not always necessarily rely on the scientific methods.
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
All of the following are true about theories, except:
They organize and summarize existing knowledge about a topic.
They are tentative until the facts prove them true.
They provide possible explanations for the phenomenon under study.
They lead to testable hypotheses through the process of deduction.
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose oneWhich of the following statements it
TRUE for operational definition?
It is one that bears no relation to the underlying concept.
It is an abstract, theoretical definition of a concept
A definition of a concept in terms of specific and empirical measures.
It is one that refers to opera singers and their work.
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements is false about variables?
Discrete variables allow measurement of an infinite number of fractions of units of
measurement.
Discrete variables can only have whole number values.
Continuous numbers can only have whole number values.
Continuous measures do not allow for scores that fall between two number values.
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A variable that is presumed to cause a change in another variable is known as:
Discontinuous variable
Dependent variable
Independent variable
Intervening variable
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following can best be described as a categorical variable?
Age
Annual income
Grade point average
Religion
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
‘
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
“The higher the level of job satisfaction of the of ficers the lower the rate of turnover in an
organization”, is a:
Descriptive hypothesis
Relational hypothesis
Relational and directional hypothesis
Relational and non directional hypothesis
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which two of the following are legitimate frameworks for setting out a literature review:
❖Constructing intertextual coherence, 2. Deconstruction of textual coherence,
❖Problematizing the situation, 4. Resolving discovered problems?
❖ and 2
❖ and 3
❖ and 3
❖ and 4
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following refers to "A review that only demonstrates familiarity with an
area is rarely published but it often is part of an educational program is which type of
review"?
Integrative review
Theoretical review
Self-study review
Historical review
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following functions is performed by theoretical framework?
Elaborates the relationship among the variables.
Explains the logic underlying these relationships.
Describes the nature, and direction of the relationships.
All of the given options.
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When embarking upon a research project, which of the following issues should be
considered?
That the data from the study will be treated anonymously and confidentially.
Coherent research question, pilot work and confidentially.
Pilot work should be carried out to assess the practical issues and feasibility of the
research.
That the research should be based upon a coherent research question.
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is least likely to occur as an ethical problem with electronic
research?
Privacy could be invaded.
People are not likely to be able to stop once they have begun participating.
Debriefing could be avoided.
Informed consent cannot be completely monitored.
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Mr. Ali has decided to use the tests given at the end of each chapter of the textbook to
measure the achievement levels of the students in his study. Which of the following
BEST describes the end of chapter test?
Operationalized variable
Independent variable
Variable
Construct
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which type of measurement scale describes the typical test scores that range from 0 to
100?
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Mr. Hasan’s son has applied to a high school in Florida, but the application was denied
solely on his low score on the Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS). His son wants to attend
this school and contends his current grades and other standardized test scores speak well
to both his past work and future academic capability. Which of the following
characteristics of the ITBS is being questioned by this student? Construct validity
Content validity
Predictive validity
Concurrent validity
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the appropriate way in which to view the reliability of
observational data?
Test-retest
Parallel forms
Internal consistency
Interobserver reliability
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following BEST describes an assessment that examines students' ability to
conduct a chemistry experiment in the lab?
Performance assessment
Interest inventory
Aptitude
Standardized test
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following functions is performed by the Odinal scale?
Categorize
Distance
Order
Unique origin
Question No: 22 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In which way does a ratio scale measurement differ from an interval measurement?
It implies the existence of an absolute zero value.
It measures larger or smaller scores on some underlying dimension.
It requires the mutual exclusivity of all cases.
It requires that exhaustiveness is applied to all observations.
Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT the implication of Ordinal scale?
Characteristics of nominal scale
Rank the object
Does not provide magnitude of object
Provide rate
Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements is correct about validity and reliability?
When internal validity is high, external validity is low
When internal validity is high, there is no change in external validity
When internal validity is high, external validity is also high
All of the given options
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is a threat to the internal validity of an experimental design?
Maturation
Interaction of setting and treatment
Interaction effects of pre-testing
Reactive effects of experimental arrangements
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements relates to concurrent validity?
The measure apparently reflects the content of the concept in question.
A criterion is employed on which cases are known to differ.
A future criterion is employed on which cases are known to differ.
A measure is gauged by comparing it to measures of the same concept developed through
other methods.
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A measure has high internal consistency reliability when:
Multiple observers make the same ratings using the measure.
Participants score at the high end of the scale every time they complete the measure.
Multiple observers obtain the same score every time they use the measure.
Each of the items correlates with other items on the measure.
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Research may differ along a series of dimensions. Which of the following may be applied
to this statement?
❖ The type of data collected.
❖ The data-collection technique.
❖ The level of manipulation used to elicit data collection.
❖ All of the given options.
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statement refers to cross-sectional design?
❖ A comparison of two or more variables over a long period of time
❖ The collection of data from more than one case at one moment in time
❖ One that is devised when the researcher is in a bad mood
❖ A study of one particular section of society, e.g. the middle classes
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is a legitimate purpose of a research plan?
❖ It forces you to think through every aspect of a study.
❖ It provides detailed procedures to guide the conduct of the study.
❖ It provides clear roadmap of the study.
❖ Writing a plan facilitates the evaluation of it.
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A study design in which the researcher might create_______ to establish cause-and-effect
relationship is called Experimental Design.
❖ An artificial setting, control some variables and manipulates the independent variable
❖ A natural setting, control some variables and manipulates the dependent variables
❖ An artificial setting, control some variables and manipulates the dependent variable
❖ All of the given options
Question No: 32 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following kinds of survey research gathers data through questionnaires
administered once to the sample?
❖ Longitudinal, observation
❖ Cross-sectional, observation
❖ Longitudinal, self-report
❖ Cross-sectional, self-report
Question No: 33 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT an example of a problem with using survey research to
investigate behaviour?
❖ Respondents tend to answer by giving the most socially desirable answer.
❖ Respondents may inadvertently omit key terms in the question.
❖ Respondents may not give an honest reply to what they see as a threatening question.
❖ Respondents may be unwilling to reveal information as they believe they are likely to
Question No: 34 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements might assist response rates?
❖ Please photocopy the questionnaire five times and pass on to your work colleagues.
❖ Please make sure that the questionnaire is completed with a fountain pen.
❖ Please read the attached journal article on the ontological foundations of positivism
prior to completing the questionnaire.
❖ Please put the completed questionnaire in the enclosed stamped addressed envelope
Question No: 35 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT a source of literature review?
❖ Scholarly Books
❖ Dissertations
❖ Policy Reports and Presented Papers
❖ Story book
Question No: 36 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The most critical area of an article to read is;
❖ Introduction
❖ Abstract
❖ Results section
❖ Limitations
Question No: 37 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The Introduction section of the research plan;
❖ Gives an overview of prior relevant studies.
❖ Contains a statement of the purpose of the study.
❖ Relates previous studies, denote purpose and research questions.
❖ Concludes with a statement of the research questions and, for quantitative research, it
includes the research hypothesis.
Question No: 38 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Time consumed in mall intercept interview is representing which of the following type?
❖ High
❖ Moderate
❖ Low
❖ Nill
Question No: 39 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is True for survey research?
❖ Survey research is a subset of experimental research.
❖ Survey research is often used in experimental research.
❖ Survey research is never used in experimental research.
❖ Survey research is always used in experimental research.
Question No: 40 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is to convince reviewers that the researcher is capable of
successfully conducting the proposed research project?
❖ Literature review
❖ Research question
❖ Research proposal
❖ Research project
Question No: 41 ( Marks: 10 )
What are various type of variables that can be identified during research. Explain with
suitable example.
MIDTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2010
STA630- Research Methods (Session - 4)
Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Research can help in the following ways for developing methodologies, EXCEPT;
❖ Tools of data collection
❖ New technique for gathering data
❖ Defining a problem
❖ Data analysis
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Research method is applicable in all of the following fields, Except.
❖ Health care
❖ Business
❖ Government offices
❖ Religion
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following BEST describes quantitative research?
❖ The collection of non numerical data
❖ An attempt to confirm the research’s hypotheses
❖ Research that is exploratory
❖ Research that attempts to generate a new theory
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the definition of an independent variable?
❖ A variable that is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter.
❖ A response variable.
❖ The behavioural measure made by the experimenter.
❖ A dependent variable that is controlled by the experimenter.
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A literature review should be characterized by all of the following, EXCEPT;
❖ Summarize and report each article.
❖ Use important topics as the organizing structure of the review.
❖ Analyze all articles for similarities and differences related to major topics.
❖ Discuss implications relative to the research problem.
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following functions is performed by theoretical framework?
❖ Elaborates the relationship among the variables.
❖ Explains the logic underlying these relationships.
❖ Describes the nature, and direction of the relationships.
❖ All of the given options.
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When there is a need of generating new ideas for hypotheses or to interpret the results of
some research, which one is the best research deign?
❖ Experiment
❖ Surveys
❖ Focus group discussion
❖ Communication analysis
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What should the business researcher be aware of when signing a confidentiality
agreement?
❖ Any clause which limits the length of a questionnaire.
❖ Any clause which allows the company to comment on findings that will be published.
❖ Any clause which increases the level of access for the researcher.
❖ Any clause which guarantees the anonymity of research participants.
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is an example of deception in business research?
❖ The obtaining of company material without permission.
❖ The researcher wearing a disguise during an observation.
❖ The researcher representing their research as being about a different topic.
❖ The researcher failing to ask permission to interview someone.
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
All of the following are part of the ethics code for animal research, except;
❖ The researcher must be an expert about the species being studied.
❖ Procedures using reinforcement are preferred over those using punishment.
❖ Animal studies that are purely educational in purpose cannot be done.
❖ If the animal must be killed at the end of the study, a painless procedure must be used.
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is not an example of deception?
❖ A part of the truth is not communicated to the respondent.
❖ To observe code of ethics.
❖ To leak out information regarding any confidential matter.
❖ To create bias between respondents before the survey.
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following BEST describes an assessment that examines students' ability to
conduct a chemistry experiment in the lab?
❖ Aptitude
❖ Interest inventory
❖ Performance assessment
❖ Standardized test
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is a legitimate purpose of a research plan?
❖ It forces you to think through every aspect of a study.
❖ It provides detailed procedures to guide the conduct of the study.
❖ It provides clear roadmap of the study.
❖ Writing a plan facilitates the evaluation of it.
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following surveys are more impersonal than face-to-face interviews?
❖ Mail
❖ Recorded Interview
❖ Focus group
❖ Telephonic
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
All of the following are the characteristics of scientific methods of research, EXCEPT;
❖ Cumulative
❖ Deterministic
❖ Unethical
❖ Rationalism
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT the feature of theoretical framework?
❖ Make an inventory of variables
❖ Statistical analysis
❖ Specify the direction of relationship
❖ Make an inventory of propositions
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following study requires the collection of data at one point in time from a
large number of respondents?
❖ Case study
❖ Cross-sectional study
❖ All of the given options
❖ Longitudinal study
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT the goal of the explanatory research?
❖ Testing theory
❖ Establishing the relationship between different phenomenon
❖ Generating new ideas about the topic
❖ Replicating a theory to a new area
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Basic research can also be called as
❖ Practical research
❖ Fundamental Research
❖ Action research
❖ Assessment research
Question No: 22 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Descriptive hypothesis is also called:
❖ Directional Hypothesis
❖ Univariate Hypothesis
❖ Non directional Hypothesis
❖ All of the given options
I?HL=EN
Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Logical argument of the researcher can be based on:
❖ Personal experience
❖ Literature review
❖ Arm chair thinking
❖ All of the given options
Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Rationalism is the application of which of the following?
❖ Research solution
❖ Logic and arguments
❖ Intuition
❖ Previous findings
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the characteristic/s of Hypotheses in qualitative research
studies?
❖ Hypotheses are very specific and stated prior to beginning the study.
❖ Hypotheses are never used.
❖ Hypotheses are often generated as the data are collected, interpreted, and analyzed.
❖ Hypotheses are deductively tested
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
_______________are more specific that dimensions:
❖ Elements
❖ Variables
❖ Aspects of variables
❖ Concepts
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is an indicator of the job stress?
❖ Competitive pay
❖ Role conflict
❖ Fair policies
❖ None of the given options
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following functions is performed by the Ratio scale?
❖ All of the given options
❖ Distance
❖ Order
❖ Unique origin
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following effect in internal validity occurs when test units with extreme
scores are used.
❖ Statistical regression
❖ Selection Bias
❖ Maturation
❖ Instrumentation
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The design where we have no control over the variables and report only what has
happened or what is happening is called___________
❖ Research design
❖ Contrived design
❖ Ex-post-facto design
❖ Explanatory design
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following disadvantage of personal interview can be overcome by rapport
building?
❖ Cost
❖ Lack of anonymity of the respondents
❖ Scarcity of highly trained interviewers
❖ Callbacks
Question No: 32 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Large number of respondents are best interviewed in a (an)__________ way
❖ Unstructured
❖ Structured
❖ Semi structured
❖ Open ended
Question No: 33 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which one of these is an interviewer-administered questionnaire?
❖ Postal questionnaire
❖ Delivery and collection questionnaire
❖ Telephone questionnaire
❖ On-line questionnaire
Question No: 34 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
One of the disadvantages of the internet survey is:
❖ All people cannot participate
❖ Slow data collection speed
❖ Less anonymity
❖ High cost
Question No: 35 ( Marks: 3 )
Why preliminary notification is essential in self administered questionnaire?
Question No: 36 ( Marks: 5 )
A research was conducted by education department to see the impact of strict teaching
practices on the rate of failure among the students.
Identify dependent and independent variables. (1)
Classify this research according to purpose of doing research; exploratory, descriptive or
explanatory. Explain your choice.(2)
Classify this research according to use of research; Basic or Applied. Explain your
choice.(2)
Question No: 37 ( Marks: 5 )
"Because literature survey is a time-consuming exercise, a good in-depth interview will
be sufficient to develop a theoretical framework". Discuss this statement.
Quiz #2 STA 630
If a nominal scale is used, it is permissible to calculate which of the following
statistics?
Select correct option:
Mean
Range
Percentile
Mode
The key objective of data analysis is to:
Select correct option:
Calculate statistics
Understand relationships between variables
Obtain the distribution of responses for each question
Create tables which display the survey results
Question # 3 of 15
Bias is defined as;
Select correct option:
The distortion of responses based on gender, ethnicity, race, or language
A lack of validity
A lack of reliability
A poor interpretation of a student's score
Question # 4 of 5
Which of the following is a research method that allows a researcher to get
information
about a large number of subjects relatively inexpensively and easily?
Select correct option:
Naturalistic observation
Case study
Laboratory observation
Survey
Question # 5 of 15
What is the first step in the research process?
Select correct option:
Preliminary data collection
Problem
definition Theoretical
framework
Define broad problem area
Step I: Formulating a Research Problem
Formulating a research problem is the first and most important step in the
research process.
A research problem identifies your destination: it should tell you, your research
supervisor and your readers what you intend to research.
Question # 6 of 15
When you are confident that the experimental manipulation produced the changes
you
measured in the dependent variable, your study probably has
good ___________ validity.
Select correct option:
Construct Inter
nal
External
Causal
Question # 7 of 15
What is a relationship between the literature survey and the theoretical
framework?
Select correct option:
Provides a solid foundation for developing the latter
Literature survey helps in the identification of the relevant variables
The theoretical framework explains the theory underlying these relations
All of the given options
There is a relationship between the literature survey and the theoretical
framework whereby the former provides a solid foundation for developing the
latter. Literature survey helps in the identification of the relevant variables, as
determined by the previous researches. This in addition to other logical
connections that can be conceptualized forms the basis for the theoretical model.
The theoretical framework elaborates the relationships among the variables,
explains the theory underlying these relations, and describes the nature and
direction of the relationships.
Question # 8 of 15
In which way does a ratio scale measurement differ from an interval
measurement?
Select correct option:
It measures larger or smaller scores on some underlying dimension.
It implies the existence of an absolute zero value.
It requires the mutual exclusivity of all cases.
It requires that exhaustiveness is applied to all observations.
Question # 9 of 15
All of these are characteristics of scientific methods of research except, it is
Select correct option:
Cumulative
Deterministic
Unethical (handouts pg#5)
Rationalism
Question # 10 of 15
The elaboration of the variables in the theoretical framework addresses which
type of
questions?
Select correct option:
Why we expect certain relationships to exist
How we expect certain relationships to exist
Both of the given questions
None of the given questions
Question # 11 of 15
Which of the following is the least appropriate research
problem?
Select correct option:
Does studying Latin improve the standardized vocabulary test scores of
seventh grade students?
Does drilling fifth grade students with multiplication facts improve their
standardized test
scores?
What is the relationship between students' math attitudes and math
achievement?
Should students have access to controversial novels in school?
Question # 12 of 15
A ________ scale only assigns numbers to objects to classify the objects
according to the
characteristic of interest.
Select correct option:
Ratio No
minal
Interval
Dichotomous
Question # 13 of 15
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a good research
topic?
Select correct option:
It is ethical.
It can be investigated through the collection and analysis of data.
It focuses on a philosophical or ethical
issue. It is theoretically or practically
significant.
Question # 14 of 15
Which of the following should not be a consideration in writing a proposal?
Select correct option:
Understanding the problem
situation The appearance/form of
the proposal
Responding to every element exactly as specified by the client
Knowing as much as possible about the proposal recipients
Question # 15 of 15
The extent to which we can generalize the results of a study to other participants
is called
Select correct option:
Sampling validity
External validity
Construct validity
Internal validity
. External validity refers to: the extent to which we can generalize the results of a
study to other populations and settings
Sta 2010 solve by my self
1.Which research paradigm is based on the pragmatic view of
reality
a. quantitative research
b. qualitative research
c. mixed researchd.
none of the above
❖ Which research paradigm is least concerned about
generalizing its findings?
a. quantitative research
b. qualitative research
c. mixed researchd.
none of the above
❖ Which of the following best describes quantitative research?
a. the collection of nonnumerical data
b. an attempt to confirm the researcher’s hypotheses
c. research that is exploratory
d. research that attempts to generate a new theory
❖ A condition or characteristic that can take on different values
or categories is called ___.a.
a constant
b. a variable
c. a cause-and-effect relationship
d. a descriptive relationship
❖ A variable that is presumed to cause a change in another
variable is called a(n)
a. categorical variable
b. dependent variable
c. independent variable
d. intervening variable
❖ All of the following are common characteristics of
experimental research except:
a. it relies primarily on the collection of numerical data
b. it can produce important knowledge about cause and effect
c. it uses the deductive scientific methodd. it rarely is conducted in a
controlled setting or environment
d. it rarely is conducted in a controlled setting or environment
❖ Qualitative research is often exploratory and has all of the
following characteristics except:
a. it is typically used when a great deal is already known about the
topic of interest
b. it relies on the collection of nonnumerical data such as words and
pictures
c. it is used to generate hypotheses and develop theory about
phenomena in the world
d. it uses the inductive scientific method
❖ Which type of research provides the strongest evidence
about the existence of cause-and-effect relationships? a.
nonexperimental Research
b. experimental Research
❖ What is the key defining characteristic of experimental
research?
a. extraneous variables are never present
b. a positive correlation usually exists c. a
negative correlation usually exists
d. manipulation of the independent variable
❖ In _____, random assignment to groups is never possible
and the researcher cannot manipulate the independent
variable.
a. basic research
b. quantitative research
c. experimental research
d. causal-comparative and correlational research
❖ What is the defining characteristic of experimental
research?
a. resistance to manipulation
b. manipulation of the independent variable
c. the use of open-ended questions
d. focuses only on local problems
12.. A positive correlation is present when _______.
a. two variables move in opposite directions
.b. two variables move in the same direction.
c. one variable goes up and one goes down d.
several variables never change.
❖ Research in which the researcher uses the qualitative
paradigm for one phase and the quantitative paradigm for
another phase is known as ______.
a. action research
b. basic research
c. quantitative researchd. mixed method research
e. mixed model research1
❖ Research in which the researcher uses both qualitative and
quantitative research within a stage or across two of the stages
in the research process is known as ______.
a. action research
b. basic research
c. quantitative research
d. mixed method researche. mixed model research
15.. Research that is done to understand an event from the
past is known as _____?
a. experimental research
b. historical research
❖ replication
❖ archival research
❖ ______ research occurs when the researcher manipulates
the independent variable
.a. causal-comparative research
b. experimental research
❖ ethnography
❖ correlation research
17.. Which of the following includes examples of quantitative
variables?
a. age, temperature, income, height
b. grade point average, anxiety level, reading performance
c. gender, religion, ethnic group d. both a and b
18.. What is the opposite of a variable?a.
❖constant
b. an extraneous variable
c. a dependent variable
d. a data set
❖ Which of the following is the type of nonexperimental
research in which the primaryindependent variable of interest
is categorical?
a. causal-comparative research
b. experimental research
c. qualitative research
d. mixed research
❖ Which of the following can best be described as a
categorical variable?
a. age
b. annual income
c. grade point average
d. religion
❖ In research, something that does not "vary" is called a
___________.
a. variable
b. method
c. constant
d. control group
❖ When interpreting a correlation coefficient expressing the
relationship between two variables, it is very important to
avoid _______
.a. checking the strength of relationship
b. jumping to the conclusion of causality
c. checking the direction of the relationshipd. expressing a relationship
with a correlation coefficient
❖ A researcher studies achievement by children in poorly
funded elementary schools. She develops a model that posits
parent involvement as an important variable. She believes that
parent involvement has an impact on children by increasing
their motivation to do school work. Thus, in her model, greater
parent involvement leads to higher student motivation, which in
turn creates higher student achievement. Student motivation is
what kind of variable in this study?
a. Manipulated variable
b. Extraneous variable
c. Confounding variable
. Mediating or intervening variable
❖ The strongest evidence for causality comes from which of
the following research methods?
a. Experimental
b. Causal-comparative
c. Correlational
d. Ethnography
❖ Which correlation is the strongest
?a. +.10
❖ -.95
❖ +.90
❖ -1.0026. The correlation between intelligence test scores and
grades is:a. 26. The correlation between intelligence test scores
and grades is:
❖ Positive
❖ Negative
❖ Perfect
❖ They are not correlated
❖ Which of the following is necessary in obtaining informed
consent?
a. A description of the statistical analyses that will be carried out
b. A description of the purpose of the research
c. A description of the reliability and validity of test instruments d.
A list of publications that the researcher has had in the last ten
years
❖ Which of the following need(s) to be obtained when doing
research with children?
a. Informed consent from the parent or guardian
b. Assent from the child if he or she is capable c.
Informed consent from the child
d. Both a and b
❖ Which of the following is true about the use of deception in
research?
a. It should never be used
b. It can be used anytime
c. If there is deception in a study, the participants may need to be
debriefed
d. The use of deception must be outweighed by other benefits of the
study
e. Both c and d are true
❖ Which of the following generally cannot be done in
qualitative studies conducted in the field?
a. Getting informed consent
b. Keeping participants from physical harm
c. Maintaining consent forms
d. Having full anonymity rather than just confidentiality
31.. What is the primary approach that is used by the IRB to
assess the ethical acceptability of a research study?
a. Utilitarianism
❖ Deontology
❖ Ethical skepticism
❖ Comparativeism
32.. Which of the following approaches says that ethical issues
should be judged on the basis of some universal code?
a. Deontological
b. Ethical skepticism
c. Utilitarianism
33 Which of the following is not an ethical guideline for
conducting research with humans?
a. Getting informed consent of the participant
b. Telling participants they must continue until the study has been
completed
c. Keeping participants’ identity anonymous
d. Telling participants they are free to withdraw at any time
❖ Which of the three ethics approaches says research ethics
should be a matter of the individual's conscience?
a. Deontological approach
b. Ethical skepticism
c. Utilitarianism
d. Ontological skepticism
❖ Which of the following is not true?
a. Misrepresenting and creating fraudulent data is dishonest
b. Misrepresenting data is very easy to detect
c. Misrepresenting data can be difficult to detect
d. Breaking confidentiality is not a problem
❖ Ideally, the research participant's identity is not known to
the researcher. This is called:
a. Anonymity b.
Confidentiality c.
Deception d.
Desensitizing
❖ Which of the following approaches taken by people to
resolve ethical issues is the primary approach used by the
federal government and most professional organizations?
a. Deontological approach
b. Ethical skepticism
c. Utilitarianism
d. None of the above
❖ What is it called when the participants are not revealed to
any one but researcher and staff?
a. Confidentiality
b. Anonymity c.
Ethics
d. Discretion
❖ Research participants must give what before they can
participate in a study?
a. Guidelines
b. A commitment c.
Informed consent d.
Private information
❖ There are three basic approaches that people tend to adopt
when consideringethical issues in research. Which one of the
following is not one of the approaches?
a. Ethical skepticism
b. Deontology
c. Ontology
d. Utilitarianism
Q.41 What is Descriptive research ? What is Goals of
Descriptive Research ? Marks 10
Descriptive research present a picture of the specific details of
a situation social setting or relationship . The major purpose of
descriptive research as the term implies is to describe
characteristics of a population or phenomenon. Descriptive
research seeks to derermine the answer to who what when
where and how question . labor force survey population cencus
and educational census are examples of such research
Descriptive study offers to ther researcher a profile or
description of relvernt aspect of the phenomena of interest .
look at the class in research methods and try to give its profile
the characteristics of the students when we start to look at the
relationship of the variables then it may help in diagnosis
analysis
0 Comments
Goals of descriptive research
❖ Describe the situation in trms of its characteristics i.e
provide an accurate profile of a group’
❖ Give a verbal or numerical picture% of the situation
❖ Present background information
❖ Create a set of categories or classify the information
❖ Clarify sequence set of stages and
❖ Focus on who what when where and how but not why?
STA630 Research Method solved MCQs set 2
The independent variable in an experiment is
Answer: the variable that the experimenter chooses to manipulate.
In order to summarize or organize a series of observations in some meaningful way,
psychologists may develop
Answer: theories.
Basic ethical guidelines for psychological researchers include
Answer: providing results and interpretations to participants.
What best describes a double-blind experimental procedure?
Answer: Half the subjects get the experimental procedure, half the placebo; which they receive is not
known to subjects or experimenters.
A set of exact procedures that represent particular variables is called a(n)
Answer: operational definition.
A friend states that since he has been taking vitamin C, he has not had a single cold. His
observation has little value in assessing the effects of vitamin C because
Answer: there was no control group for comparison.
A simple experiment has two groups of subjects called
Answer: the control group and the experimental group.
An example of the "experimenter effect" would be a situation in which the experimenter
Answer: unknowingly hints to subjects what is expected of them.
Which of the following is considered by the text to be a pseudo-psychology?
Answer: astrology
To investigate the effects of a particular study method on student performance, two different
methods are tried, each with a different group of subjects. If only the experimenter knows which
method is under investigation, the procedure being used is described as
Answer: a single blind.
The results of carefully controlled observations of Clever Hans and his ability to solve math
problems showed
Answer: he was cued by the owner looking up or down.
The study of unusual events is to as information from a large number of people is to
.
Answer: clinical method; survey method
One of the limitations of the survey method is
Answer: that replies may not be accurate.
I work at a university, and my research is designed to be of immediate use in the classroom. My
research would be called
Answer: applied.
In terms of critical thinking and testing, results should be
Answer: metaanalytical.
A variable, such as the personality of a subject, that might affect the outcome of an experiment
would be controlled by
Answer: random assignment of subjects.
In my experiment, I am going to investigate how sleep affects anxiety. The number of hours of
sleep the subjects have is called the _ _ variable.
Answer: independent
With respect to astrology, palmistry, and phrenology, it can be said that
Answer: all are pseudo-psychology's.
A major problem with the survey method is
Answer: obtaining a representative sample of subjects to be questioned.
An observation that the higher the air temperature, the lower the activity of test animals would be
an example of a
Answer: negative correlation.
To assess clients' abilities, a phrenologist would want to
Answer: examine their skulls.
To replicate an experiment means to
Answer: repeat the experiment using either identical or improved research methods.
The conditions that a researcher wishes to prevent from affecting the experiment are called
Answer: extraneous variables.
One of the characteristics of the scientific method is
Answer: repeatable results.
In the simplest experiment, the two groups of subjects are treated exactly alike except for the
variable.
Answer: independent
The steps involved in the scientific method include?
Answer: experimentation
is an inherent part of the scientific method.
Answer: observation
The story of Clever Hans, the mathematical horse, illustrates the use of controlled observation to
test a series of
Answer: hypotheses.
When subjects in an experiment are chosen so that each has an equal chance of being in either
the experimental group or the control group, we say that the subjects have been assigned
Answer: randomly.
The survey method involves
Answer: careful questioning of a representative sample of people.
What type of method can be used in order to create a real world laboratory.
Answer: field experiment
To be confident that a cause-and-effect relationship exists, it is necessary to
Answer: perform a controlled experiment.
An experiment is performed to test the effects of sleep deprivation on rote memory. In this
experiment, the dependent variable is the
Answer: rote memory scores.
The fortune teller who studies your palm carefully before announcing that "great fortune lies in
your immediate future" is practicing psychology.
Answer: pseudo
Research on the benefit of aspirin to prevent heart attacks used only male subjects in the sample.
Both men and women are given this advice. The problem with this recommendation reflects
Answer: gender bias.
To estimate the degree of the relationship between birth order and achievement motivation, a
researcher would do a(n) study.
Answer: correlational
In the method of naturalistic observation, psychologists
Answer: set out to actively observe subjects in their natural environments.
Two variables may be said to be causally related if
Answer: all extraneous variables are controlled, and the independent variable creates consistent
differences in behavior of the experimental group.
The problems of observers seeing only what they expect to see is called
Answer: observer bias.
Giving placebos in drug experiments is necessary to
Answer: control for the effects of suggestion and expectation.
The following could serve as an "College women who are anxious tend to want to be
together."
Answer: experimental hypothesis
Theories explain results, predict future outcomes, and
Answer: guide research for future studies.
A correlation coefficient of -1.09 indicates a(n)
Answer: error in computation.
A representative sample is an essential element of the
Answer: survey method.
The effects of brain injury on personality would usually be investigated by the use of the
Answer: case study method.
One of the limitations of the case study is that
Answer: there are no control groups.
A scientist wants to find out if there is empirical evidence for a relationship between caffeine and
aggressive behavior. She would
Answer: test the idea by conducting an experiment.
The essence of the experimental method is
Answer: using control to identify cause-and-effect connections.
If you're trying to establish a causal relationship between a reinforcer and increased performance,
you should use a(n) _ method.
Answer: experimental
In a weight-reduction experiment, an overweight individual was given what the researcher called a
new type of diet pill that would help curb the desire to eat. In fact, the pill really contained
powdered milk, but ever since the individual started taking the diet pill, he has reported that his
desire to eat has decreased. This illustrates the
Answer: placebo effect.
An educated guess about what is controlling some behavior is called
Answer: a hypothesis.
A correlation coefficient is best characterized as a(n)
Answer: measure of the extent of the relationship between two variables.
In order to determine the cause of behavior, the questions we ask must be
Answer: testable.
A common sense approach to psychology is
Answer: often contradicted by empirical evidence.
0 Comments
Responding to a substance like a sugar pill as if it were a drug is called
Answer: the placebo effect.
The control group and the experimental group in an experiment are treated exactly the same
except for the
Answer: independent variable
A field experiment is one that
Answer: uses the "real world" as a laboratory.
Characteristics of the scientific method include
Answer: controlled observation.
A correlational study is one that determines
Answer: the relationship between two events
STA630 Research Method MCQs Solved 1-30 MCQ
1. A psychologist using the method of naturalistic observation would
a.carefully design controlled situations in which to observe behavior.
b.rely on observations of subjects' responses to questionnaires.
c.observe behavior as it happens outside the laboratory or clinic.
d.make records of the behavior of clients treated in therapy.
2.In a study of effects of alcohol on driving ability, the control group should be
given
a.a high dosage of alcohol.
b.one-half the dosage given the experimental group.
c.a driving test before and after drinking alcohol.
d.no alcohol at all.
3. A scientific explanation that remains tentative until it has been adequately
tested is called a(n)
a.theory.
b.law.
c.hypothesis.
d.experiment.
4. A study to determine the degree of relationship between two events is called
a.naturalistic observation.
b.the correlational method.
c.a controlled experiment.
d.the survey method.
5. is an ability to evaluate, compare, analyze, critique, andsynthesize
information.
a.Critical thinking
b.Transductive thinking
c.Deductive thinking
d.Creative thinking
6. The phrase "a theory must also be falsifiable" means
a.researchers misrepresent their data.
b.a theory must be defined so it can be disconfirmed.
c.theories are a rich array of observations regarding behavior but with few facts to
support them.
d.nothing.
7. The products of naturalistic observation are best described in terms of
a.explanation.
b.theory.
c.prediction.
d.description.
8. A teacher believes that one group of children is very bright and that a second
is below average in ability. Actually, the groups are identical, but the first group
progresses more rapidly than the second. This demonstrates
a.the self-fulfilling prophecy.
b.the placebo effect in a natural experiment.
c.observer bias in naturalistic observation.
d.the ethical problems of field experiments.
9. A psychologist observes the confrontation between two rivalneighborhood
gangs from the window of an abandoned building. This method of collecting
observations is best described as
a.experimental regression.
b.naturalistic observation.
c.controlled experimentation.
d.clinical case study.
10. In an experiment to find out if taking ginseng increases IQ scores, the IQ
scores would be
a.the independent variable.
b.a control variable.
c.an extraneous variable.
d.the dependent variable.
11. Which of the following is considered a disadvantage of naturalistic
observation?
a.It provides an overabundance of information.
b.It deals with behavior not tampered with by outside influences.
c.It limits biased observations through careful record keeping.
d.It does not identify the cause of observed behavior.
12. Subjects are said to be assigned randomly when
a.they are assigned to experimental and control groups from a sample which is
representative of the larger population.
b.they each have an equal chance of being assigned to either the experimental or
control group.
c.they are assigned to experimental and control groups so that the groups differ on
some critical variable before the experiment begins.
d.neither the experimenter nor the subject knows whether the subject is in the
experimental or control group.
13. A psychologist watches the rapid eye movements of sleeping subjectsand
wakes them to find they report that they were dreaming. She concludes that
dreams are linked to rapid eye movements. This conclusion is based on
a.pure speculation.
b.direct observation.
c.deduction from direct observation.
d.prior prediction.
14. To prevent ethical abuse in psychological research, the APA has suggested
that
a.psychologists must treat all subjects with respect and concern for the subject's
dignity.
b.psychologists must avoid deception with using human subjects.
c.all data collected from a person must be made public.
d.all psychological harm to subjects must be corrected by counseling.
15. A common method for selecting representative samples is to selectthem
a.randomly from the larger population.
b.strictly from volunteers.
c.by threatening or coercing institutionalized populations.
d.from confidential lists of mail order firms.
16. Three major ethical concerns of psychological researchers are deception, lasting
harm to subjects, and
a.morality of the question under investigation.
b.loss of future research possibilities.
c.falsified results.
d.invasion of privacy.
17. An experimenter conducts an experiment on the effects of a drug to control
hallucinations. He declares the results to be "statistically significant," which
usually means that
a.even though appropriate statistics were used, no differences could be detected
between experimental and control groups.
b.the results have important implications for theory or practice.
c.differences between experimental and control groups of this size occur by chance only
5 times out of 100 (or less).
d.differences between experimental and control groups were so large they could never
occur by chance alone.
18. We wish to test the hypothesis that music improves learning. We compare
test scores of students who study to music with those who study in silence.
Which of the following is an extraneous variable in this experiment?
a.the presence or absence of music
b.the students' test scores
c.the amount of time allowed for the studying
d.silence
19. The statistical technique that combines results of a large number of studies is
called
a.experimental correlation.
b.statistical linear analysist.
c.meta-analysis.
d.hypothetical analysis.
20. An experiment is performed to see if background music improves learning.
Two groups study the same material, one while listening to music and another
without music. The independent variable is
a.learning.
b.the size of the group.
c.the material studied.
d.music.
21 The chief function of the control group in an experiment is that it
a. allows mathematical relationships to be established.
b. provides a point of reference against which the behavior of the experimental group
can be compared.
c. balances the experiment to eliminate all extraneous variables.
d.is not really necessary.
22. Which of the following coefficients of correlation indicates the strongest
relationship between two sets of variables?
a.-0.98
b. 0.90
c. 0.00
d. 1.20
23. The most powerful research tool is a (an)
a.clinical study.
b.experiment.
c.survey.
d.correlational study.
ANSWER: B
24. A major disadvantage of the experimental method is that
a.private funding can never be obtained.
b.APA Ethical Review Committees often do not approve of the research techniques.
c.there is a certain amount of artificiality attached to it.
d.subjects are difficult to find for research projects.
ANSWER: C
25. A researcher determines that the crime rate in a large city fluctuates with the
phases of the moon. He concludes that the gravitational pull of the moon
influences human behavior. He has committed what error?
a.He incorrectly inferred correlation from causation.
b.He incorrectly inferred causation from correlation.
c.He failed to measure the gravitational pull to test his hypothesis.
d.He has overlooked the placebo effect.
ANSWER: B
26. Students who do better in high school tend to do better in college. This is an
example of
a.a negative correlation.
b.a zero correlation.
c.a positive correlation.
d.a perfect correlation.
ANSWER: C
27. In the traditional learning experiment, the effect of practice on performanceis
investigated. Performance is the variable.
a.independent
b.extraneous
c.dependent
d.control
ANSWER: C
28. Collection of observable evidence, precise definition, and replication of
results all form the basis for
a.scientific observation.
b.the scientific method.
c.defining a scientific problem.
d.hypothesis generation.
ANSWER: B
29. An advantage of the experimental method in psychology is
a.the identification of a cause- and-effect relationship.
b.similar to the correlational method in that causality is determined.
c.that the surroundings are always similar to real life experiences.
d.that it is an informal way to investigate behavior.
ANSWER: A
30.A correlation coefficient of 0 means that there is
a.a strong negative relationship between the two variables.
b.a strong positive relationship between the two variables.
c.a perfect positive relationship between the two variables.
d.no relationship between the two variables.
ANSWER: D
Research Methods –STA630
Solved MCQ’s BANK A
www.vuzs.info
1. A good qualitative problem statement:
a. Defines the independent and dependent variables
b. Conveys a sense of emerging design
c. Specifies a research hypothesis to be tested
d. Specifies the relationship between variables that the researcher expects to find
www.vuzs.info
2. The “tool” function of theory is to:
a. Summarize existing knowledge
b. Summarize existing hypotheses
c. Suggest new relationships and make new predictions
d. Suggest new theories
3. The statement of purpose in a research study should:
a. Identify the design of the study
b. Identify the intent or objective of the study
c. Specify the type of people to be used in the study
d. Describe the study
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4. Why is the statement “What are the effects of extracurricular activities on cognitive
development of school age children” not a good statement of a quantitative research
question?
a. Because there is no connection between extracurricular activities and cognitive
development
b. Because there are not enough school age children engaged in extracurricular
activities
to conduct the study
c. Because the study would be too difficult to do given all the different extracurricular
activities
d. Because the statement was not specific enough to provide an understanding of
the variables being investigated
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5. A qualitative research question:
a. Asks a question about some process, or phenomenon to be explored
b. Is generally an open-ended question
c. both a and b are correct
d. None of the above
6. According to the text, which of the following orders is the recommended in the
flowchart of the development of a research idea?
a. Research topic, research problem, research purpose, researchquestion,
hypothesis
b. Research topic, research purpose, research problem, research question, hypothesis
c. Research topic, research problem, research purpose, research question, hypothesis
d. Research topic, hypothesis, research problem, research question, research purpose
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7. It is essential that you evaluate the quality of internet resources because information
obtained via the internet ranges from very poor to very good.
a. True
b. False
8. One step that is not included in planning a research study is:
a. Identifying a researchable problem
b. A review of current research
c. Statement of the research question
d. Conducting a meta-analysis of the research
e. Developing a research plan
9. Sources of researchable problems can include:
a. Researchers’ own experiences as educators
b. Practical issues that require solutions
c. Theory and past research
d. All of the above
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10. A key characteristic of past research that guides researchers in new research
questions is that:
a. Extensive research conclusively and definitively answers research questions
b. Studies typically generate more research questions than they answer
11. Which of the following is a function of theory?
a. Integrating and summarizing current knowledge
b. Making predictions
c. Explaining phenomena
d. All of the above are important functions of theory
12. A review of the literature prior to formulating research questions allowsthe
researcher to do which of the following?
a. To become familiar with prior research on the phenomenon of interest
b. To identify potential methodological problems in the research area
c. To develop a list of pertinent problems relative to the phenomenon of interest
d. All of the above
www.vuzs.info
13. Sometimes a comprehensive review of the literature prior to data collection
is not recommended by grounded theorists.
a. True
b. False
14. What kind of ideas can’t be empirically researched?
a. Effectiveness of different methods of instruction
b. Description of educational practices
c. Issues of values and morality such as the correctness of having prayerin
schools
d. Factors helpful in predicting future drug use
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15. Which of the following is not a database containing information to be used during
the literature review?
a. ERIC
b. PsychINFO
c. SocioFILE
d. all of the above are potentially useful data bases
16. Computer database searches can be done:
a. With a computer with CD-ROM drive
b. At the library
c. Online
d. All of the above
17. The feasibility of a research study should be considered in light of:
a. Cost and time required to conduct the study
b. Skills required of the researcher
c. Potential ethical concerns
d. All of the above
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18. A formal statement of the research question or “purpose of research study”
generally .
a. Is made prior to the literature review
b. Is made after the literature review
c. Will help guide the research process
d. All of the above
e. b and c
19. Is the following qualitative research purpose statement “well stated” or “poorly
stated”? “The focus of the present study was to explore distressing and nurturing
encounters of patients with caregivers and to ascertain the meanings that are
engendered by such encounters. The study was conducted on one of the surgical units
and the obstetrical/gynecological unit of a 374-bed community hospital.”
a. It is a well stated
b. It is poorly stated
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20. Which of the following quantitative research questions is superior?
a. “What is the effect of participation in various extracurricular activities on academic
performance?”
b. “What effect does playing high school football have on students’ overall grade
point average during the football season?”
21. A statement of the quantitative research question should:
a. Extend the statement of purpose by specifying exactly the question(s) the researcher
will
address
b. Help the research in selecting appropriate participants, research methods, measures,
and
materials
c. Specify the variables of interest
d. All of the above
www.vuzs.info
22. The research participants are described in detail in which section of the research
plan?
a. Introduction
b. Method
c. Data analysis
d. Discussion
23. Research hypotheses are .
a. Formulated prior to a review of the literature
b. Statements of predicted relationships between variables
c. Stated such that they can be confirmed or refuted
d. b and c
24. Hypotheses in qualitative research studies usually .
a. Are very specific and stated prior to beginning the study
b. Are often generated as the data are collected, interpreted, and analyzed
c. Are never used
d. Are always stated after the research study has been completed
www.vuzs.info
25. A research plan .
a. Should be detailed
b. Should be given to others for review and comments
c. Sets out the rationale for a research study
d. All of the above
26. The Method section of the research plan typically specifies
a. The research participants
b. The results of prior studies that address the phenomena of interest
c. The apparatus, instruments, and materials for the research study
d. The planned research procedures
e. a, c and d
27. The Introduction section of the research plan
a. Gives an overview of prior relevant studies
b. Contains a statement of the purpose of the study
c. Concludes with a statement of the research questions and, for quantitative research,
it includes
the research hypothesis
d. All of the above
www.vuzs.info
28. According to your text, which of the following is not a source of research ideas?
a. Everyday life
b. Practical issues
c. Past research
d. Theory
e. All of the above ARE sources of research ideas
www.vuzs.info
Answers:
1. b
2. c
3. b
4. d
5. c
6. a
7. a
8. d
9. d
10. b
11. d
12. d
13. a
14. c
15. d
16. d
17. d
18. e
19. a
20. b
21. d
22. b
23. d
24. b
25. d
26. e
27. d
28. e
Solved by vuZs Team
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Which of the following is an example of deception in business research?
Select correct option:
The obtaining of company material without permission.
The researcher wearing a disguise during an observation.
The researcher representing their research as being about a different topic.
The researcher failing to ask permission to interview someone.
Measurement reliability refers to the:
Select correct option:
Accuracy of the scores
Consistency of the scores
Dependency of the scores
Comprehensiveness of the scores
Which of the following is an example of deception in business research?
Select correct option:
The obtaining of company material without permission.
The researcher wearing a disguise during an observation.
The researcher representing their research as being about a different topic.
The researcher failing to ask permission to interview someone.
By informing participants that the research is about something different than it actually is, the researcher
is purposefully deceiving the participant. To some degree this is prevalent in all research so that
researchers can maximise the natural response to the questions asked.
The validity of a measure refers to the:
Select correct option:
Particular type of construct specification
Comprehensiveness with which it measures the construct
Accuracy with which it measures the construct
Consistency of the measurement
Quantitative social researchers rarely claim to have established causality because:
Select correct option:
They are more concerned with publishing the results of their reliability tests.
They do not believe that this is an appropriate goal to be striving for.
They keep forgetting which of the variables they have manipulated.
They tend to use cross-sectional designs, which produce only correlations.
An experimental design allows us to test for causal connections between variables, because one of the
variables (the 'independent' variable) is manipulated to track changes in the other (the 'dependent'
variable). However, most social survey research uses cross-sectional designs, where such manipulation
is not possible. Consequently, degrees of co-relation between variables can be determined but causality
remains inferential. If you gave answer (b), you should recognize that very few researchers are interested
in mere descriptions of things. They usually want to find out why things are the way they are so that they
can be remedied or replicated. Causality is an appropriate goal, simply difficult to achieve.
Ms. Laiba has decided to use the test at the end of the textbook to measure the achievement levels of the
students in her study. Which of the following BEST describes the chapter test?
Select correct option:
Definition
Construct
Variable
Operationalized variable
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/0,11083,2525945-content,00.utf8.html
How can we determine if a test has good validity?
Select correct option:
It produces the same result when it is given at different times to the same group of people
It produces the same result no matter which version of the test is used
It measures what it is supposed to measure
All of the questions on it can be answered accurately by the subject
http://www.sparknotes.com/psychology/psych101/researchmethods/quiz.html
The issue here is with the application of the research findings to people who were not part of the research
focus. If we select our sample of respondents randomly from the population as a whole, we can be quite
sure that the findings can be applied to the whole population. But if we interviewed people casually, we
could not generalize our findings beyond the actual people interviewed. This is the essence of external
validation of research: how universally can the research findings be applied? It must be said that even
with random sampling, we have no right to apply our findings to other populations, no matter how strong
the temptation.
A _ scale only assigns numbers to objects to classify the objects according to the characteristic of
interest.
Select correct option:
Ratio
Nominal
Interval
Dichotomous
Bias is defined as;
Select correct option:
The distortion of responses based on gender, ethnicity, race, or language
A lack of validity
A lack of reliability
A poor interpretation of a student's score
How can we determine if a test has good validity?
Select correct option:
It produces the same result when it is given at different times to the same group of people
It produces the same result no matter which version of the test is used
It measures what it is supposed to measure
All of the questions on it can be answered accurately by the subject
A telephone company is interested in obtaining customers' reactions to a new service package. Which of
the following primary research methods would be most effective in reaching this audience to obtain their
feedback?
Select correct option:
An Internet survey
Telephone interviews
A mail survey
Focus groups
The researcher protects the confidentiality in following ways, Except;
Select correct option:
Obtaining signed nondisclosure documents.
Restricting access to data instruments where the respondent is identified.
0 Comments
Disclosure of data subsets.
Restricting access to respondent identification.
Reference
The researcher protects participant’s confidentiality in several ways:
Obtaining signed nondisclosure documents.
Restricting access to participant identification.
Revealing participant information only with written consent.
Restricting access to data instruments where the participant is identified.
Not disclosing data subset.
STA630 MCQs from Quiz 2 C solved by vuZs
Solved by vuZs Team
http://www.vuzs.info
Which of the following is not a feature of theoretical framework?
Making an inventory of variables
Specify the direction of relationship
Presenting findings
Making an inventory of propositions
Which of the following is an example of deception in business research?
The obtaining of company material without permission.
The researcher wearing a disguise during an observation.
The researcher representing their research as being about a different topic.
The researcher failing to ask permission to interview someone.
Measurement reliability refers to the:
Accuracy of the scores
Consistency of the scores
Dependency of the scores
Comprehensiveness of the scores vuzs
A good qualitative problem statement:
Defines the independent and dependent variables
Conveys a sense of emerging design
Specifies a research hypothesis to be tested
Specifies the relationship between variables that the researcher expects to find.
Which of the following is an example of deception in business research?
The obtaining of company material without permission.
The researcher wearing a disguise during an observation.
The researcher representing their research as being about a different topic.
The researcher failing to ask permission to interview someone.
By informing participants that the research is about something different than it actually
is, the researcher is purposefully deceiving the participant. To some degree this is
prevalent in all research so that researchers can maximise the natural response to the
questions asked.
The validity of a measure refers to the:
Particular type of construct specification
Comprehensiveness with which it measures the construct
Accuracy with which it measures the construct
Consistency of the measurement
Quantitative social researchers rarely claim to have established causality because:
They are more concerned with publishing the results of their reliability tests.
They do not believe that this is an appropriate goal to be striving for.
They keep forgetting which of the variables they have manipulated.
They tend to use cross-sectional designs, which produce only correlations.
An experimental design allows us to test for causal connections between variables,
because one of the variables (the 'independent' variable) is manipulated to track
changes in the other (the 'dependent' variable). However, most social survey research
uses cross-sectional designs, where such manipulation is not possible. Consequently,
degrees of co-relation between variables can be determined but causality remains
inferential. If you gave answer (b), you should recognize that very few researchers are
interested in mere descriptions of things. They usually want to find out why things are
the way they are so that they can be remedied or replicated. Causality is an appropriate
goal, simply difficult to achieve.
Ms. Laiba has decided to use the test at the end of the textbook to measure the
achievement levels of the students in her study. Which of the following BEST describes
the chapter test?
Definition
Construct
Variable
Operationalized variable
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/0,11083,2525945-
content,00.utf8.html
How can we determine if a test has good validity?
It produces the same result when it is given at different times to the same group of
people
It produces the same result no matter which version of the test is used
It measures what it is supposed to measure
All of the questions on it can be answered accurately by the subject
http://www.sparknotes.com/psychology/psych101/researchmethods/quiz.html
The issue here is with the application of the research findings to people who were not
part of the research focus. If we select our sample of respondents randomly from the
population as a whole, we can be quite sure that the findings can be applied to the
whole population. But if we interviewed people casually, we could not generalize our
findings beyond the actual people interviewed. This is the essence of external validation
of research: how universally can the research findings be applied? It must be said that
even with random sampling, we have no right to apply our findings to other populations,
no matter how strong the temptation.
A scale only assigns numbers to objects to classify the objects according to the
characteristic of interest.
Ratio
Nominal
Interval
Dichotomous
Bias is defined as;
The distortion of responses based on gender, ethnicity, race, or language
A lack of validity
A lack of reliability
A poor interpretation of a student's score
The elaboration of the variables in the theoretical framework addresses which type of
qestions?
Why we expect certain relationships to exist
How we expect certain relationships to exist
Both of the given questions
None of the given questions
What is the final step of a scientific investigation?
Analyze data
Collect data
Report the findings
Determine whether the hypothesis was supported
An indicator of reliability based on the correlations of each item in a measure with every
other item is called:
Test-retest reliability
Cronbach's alpha
Split-half reliability
Inter item ratio
http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch5.html
The number of people who complete a survey in relation to the number of people
contacted to participate is called the:
Response set
0 Comments
Response rate
Response bias
Respondents
http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch7.html
Which of the following is likely to reduce the validity of a test?
Unclear test directions
Ambiguous test items
Untaught items
All of the given options
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1488/381171.cw/index.html
Which of the following is likely to reduce the validity of a test?
Unclear test directions
Ambiguous test items
Untaught items
All of the given options
STA630 Solved MCQs from Book 100%
STA630
http://groups.google.com/group/vuZs
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What is the basis of the Scientific Method?
a) To test hypotheses in conditions that are condusive to its success.
b) To formulate a research problem and disprove the hypothesis.
c) To formulate a research problem, test the hypothesis in carefully controlled conditions that
challenge the hypothesis.
d) To test hypotheses and if they are disproved, they should be abandoned completely
The scientific method requires the formulation and testing of a problem in a variety of controlled
conditions. The hypothesis should be challenged in a negative sense. If the hypothesis can be supported
(proven), then it can be suggested that implementation of the scientific method improves the predictive
power of the theoretical model.
1. Mrs. Smith is writing her daily observations of a student and writes, without interpretation, that the
student is not completing the class work and is constantly speaking out of turn. Which of the following
objectives does she appear to be using?
a. prediction
b. description
c. explanation
d. exploration
2. Which of the following is a form of research typically conducted by teachers, counselors, and other
professionals to answer questions they have and to specifically help them solve local problems?
a. action research
b. basic research
c. predictive research
d. orientational research
3. How much confidence should you place in a single research study?
a. you should completely trust a single research study.
b. you should trust research findings after different researchers have found the same findings
c. neither a nor b
d. both a and b
4. The development of a solid foundation of reliable knowledge typically is built from which type of
research?
a. basic research
b. action research
c. evaluation research
d. orientational research
5. Which form of reasoning is the process of drawing a specific conclusion from a set of premises?
a. rationalism
b. deductive reasoning
c. inductive reasoning
d. probabilistic
6. The idea that when selecting between two different theories with equal explanatory value, one should
select the theory that is the most simple, concise, and succinct is known as _ .
a. criterion of falsifiability
b. critical theory
c. guide of simplicity
d. rule of parsimony
7. Research that is done to examine the findings of someone else using the "same variables but different
people" is which of the following?
a. exploration
b. hypothesis
c. replication
d. empiricism
8. _ is the idea that knowledge comes from experience.
a. rationalism
b. deductive reasoning
c. logic
d. empiricism
9. According to your text, what are the five key objectives of science?
a. prediction, summary, conclusion, explanation, description
b. influence, prediction, questions, exploration, answers
c. exploration, description, explanation, prediction, influence
d. questions, answers, prediction, explanation, summary
10. A researcher designs an experiment to test how variables interact to influence how well children learn
spelling words. In this case, the main purpose of the study was:
a. Explanation
b. Description
c. Influence
d. Prediction
11. There is a set of churches in the U.S. where part of the service involves snake handling. The
researcher wants to find out why the people attending these churches do this and how they feel and think
about it. In this case, the primary purpose of the study is:
a. Exploration
b. Description
c. Influence
d. Prediction
12. Which of the following is not a characteristic of a good theory or explanation?
a. It is parsimonious
b. It is testable
c. It is general enough to apply to more than one place, situation, or person
d. All of the above are characteristics of good theories
13. Which of the following is not a basic assumption of science?
a. Science cannot provide answers to all questions
b. It is possible to distinguish between more and less plausible claims
c. Researchers should follow certain agreed upon norms and practices
d. Science is best at solving value conflicts, such as whether abortion is immoral
14. What general type of research is focused on collecting information to help a researcher advance an
ideological or political position?
a. Evaluation research
b. Basic research
c. Action research
d. Orientational research
15. Which “scientific method” follows these steps: 1) observation/data, 2) patterns, 3) theory?
a. Inductive
b. Deductive
c. Imductive
d. Top down
16. Rene Descartes is associated with which of the following approached to knowledge generation?
a. Empiricism
b. Rationalism
c. Expert opinion
d. None of the above
17. Which scientific method is a top-down or confirmatory approach?
a. Deductive method
b. Inductive method
c. Hypothesis method
d. Pattern method
18. Which scientific method is a bottom-up or generative approach to research?
a. Deductive method
b. Inductive method
c. Hypothesis method
d. Pattern method
19. Which scientific method focuses on testing hypotheses developed from theories?
a. Deductive method
b. Inductive method
c. Hypothesis method
d. Pattern method
20. Which scientific method often focuses on generating new hypotheses and theories?
a. Deductive method
b. Inductive method
c. Hypothesis method
d. Pattern method
21. Which of the following statements is true of a theory?
a. it most simply means “explanation”
b. it answers the “how” and “why” questions
0 Comments
c. it can be a well developed explanatory system
d. all of the above are correct
STA630 100% solved MCQ from Book C
Chapter 07
Instructions
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Choose your answers from a-d by clicking the radio button next to each choice and then press 'Submit' to get your
score.
Question 01
What is a sampling frame?
a) The report of a pilot study.
b) The selection of specific individuals to participate in the research.
c) A summary of the research process.
d) The listing of all units in the population from which the sample will be selected.
It is important to identify a sampling frame so that a representative sample can then be taken from within a
specified unit.
Question 02
How will a researcher usually prevent a significant sampling error?
a) Interview all respondents in advance.
b) Issue questionnaires to the entire sampling frame.
c) Put all the names in a hat.
d) Use probability sampling.
Probability sampling allows the researcher to apply tests of statistical significance which then allow
inferences to be made about the overall sampling frame.
Question 03
If an organisation has 12,000 employees and the researcher is able to interview 250 the probability of inclusion in the
sample is?
a) 1 in 96.
b) 1 in 20.
c) 1 in 48.
d) 1 in 250.
Simple random sampling assumes that each member of the population has an equal probability of inclusion
in the sample. The probability is calculated via a sampling fraction with the total population being divided by
the sample size.
Question 04
If a researcher wishes to obtain a nationally representative sample of trade union members but does not have the
resources to travel long distances what method of sampling could they use?
a) Stratified random sampling.
b) Multi-stage cluster sampling.
c) Simple random sampling.
d) Snowball sampling.
Multi-stage cluster sampling allows interviewers to concentrate their research more than simple random or
stratified sampling.
Question 05
Which of the following is not something a researcher will have to consider when thinking about their sample size?
a) Time and cost.
b) Non-response.
c) Length of questionnaire.
d) Heterogeneity of population.
In general bigger is better when considering sample size however all researchers need to be aware of the
limitations of their resources.
Question 06
Which of the following is an example of convenience sampling?
a) A stratified random sample of CEO's drawn from the top 100 UK companies.
b) A random sample of employees who are absent from work through stress.
c) Managers attending a seminar on corporate social responsibility organised by the researcher.
d) Illegal workers.
It is possible that the researcher could take the opportunity of issuing a questionnaire to these managers
whilst they are at the seminar. It is unlikely that the researcher will come across the other options in as
convenient a manner.
Question 07
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Which of the following is not a benefit of snowball sampling?
a) It can be used when there is difficulty in creating a sampling frame.
b) It is always representative of the population.
c) It can be used within a qualitative research strategy.
d) It can be used to reflect relationships between people by tracing connections.
Snowball sampling is unlikely to be representative of the population because of the difficulty in establishing
a sampling frame. The sampling frames that apply when snowball sampling is relevant are usually fluid and
constantly shifting.
Question 08
Quota sampling is used intensively in which type of research?
a) Market research.
b) Experimental research.
c) Action research.
d) Ethnographic research.
Commercial research and political opinion polling are other types of research that use quota sampling.
Question 09
The findings from a study of decision making processes within a UK financial services company can be generalized
to:
a) decision making processes in all financial services companies.
b) decision making processes in the all UK companies.
c) decision making processes in the researched companies.
d) none of the above.
Business and management researchers should be cautious of overgeneralizing findings beyond the
researched organization to alternative cultures.
Question 10
As part of survey research design the sample was selected by the HR manager. What sort of error could this lead to?
a) Sampling error.
b) Sampling related error.
c) Data collection error.
d) Data processing error.
The choices made by the HR manager may have been non-random and could also have reflected a bias on
the part of the individual making the choices.
Chapter 08
Instructions
Choose your answers from a-d by clicking the radio button next to each choice and then press 'Submit' to get your
score.
Question 01
What is the benefit of standardizing the asking of questions?
a) Each interview will last for exactly the same length of time.
b) A survey questionnaire can be delivered to a room full of people.
c) Answer variation will be 'true' and not due to the interview context.
d) The interviewer can predict the answers that the interviewee will give.
Standardization means that any variation between respondents cannot be put down to the way that the
question was asked or the answers recorded in the course of the administration of the survey.
Question 02
A closed question means:
a) the respondent is given a limited choice of possible answers.
b) the final question of the interview.
c) the interviewer can embellish the interviewee's answer.
d) the responses are difficult to codify.
By limiting the number of possible answers that the interviewee can give, their answers are easier to code
and it also reduces the potential for interviewer variability.
Question 03
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Which of the following is not a disadvantage of telephone interviewing?
a) The telephone interviewer cannot use visual aids.
b) It is difficult to ascertain if the correct person is replying.
c) People who do not have access to a telephone cannot be interviewed.
d) Telephone interviews are cheap and quick to administer.
This factor is more pronounced when the sample is geographically spread.
Question 04
Which of the following issues should not be mentioned in an introductory statement?
a) The information will be kept confidential.
b) What the findings of the research are.
c) Who is funding the research.
d) Why the respondent has been chosen.
It is not possible to indicate the findings of the research during the data collection period. It is very important
that the other issues are mentioned in an introductory statement.
Question 05
Which of the following questions should come at the start of a question section on corporate social responsibility?
a) How strongly do you feel about corporate social responsibility?
b) Are you in favour of corporate social responsibility?
c) Have you heard of corporate social responsibility?
d) Why are you in favour of corporate social responsibility?
Within each section general questions should precede specific ones. If the interviewee has not heard of
corporate social responsibility the additional questions will become irrelevant.
Question 06
The benefit of using a show card to prompt the interviewee is:
a) that the interviewee does not have to speak.
b) the interview can be conducted over the telephone.
c) the interviewer does not have to read the same thing out on numerous occasions.
d) the interviewer can demonstrate their artistic skills.
When using something like a Likert scale having the possible answers written out will prevent the interviewer
from having to repeat the scale for each question.
Question 07
Which of the following is an example of critical incident method?
a) Asking respondents to describe their response to different advertisements.
b) Asking respondents to talk aloud whilst they are completing a performance appraisal form.
c) Asking respondents to tell a story of an interaction they had with senior management.
d) None of the above.
Critical incident technique can be used either as part of a quantitative or qualitative research strategy. It
involves interviewing respondents about particular events in order to understand their significance.
Question 08
The repertory grid method is based on which theory?
a) Personal motivation theory.
b) Personal destruction theory.
c) Personal consumption theory.
d) Personal construct theory.
Personal construct theory (Kelly:1955) is an attempt to identify the interpretative processes whereby an
individual constructs meaning in relation to his or her social context.
Question 09
Which of the following is an example of acquiescence?
a) The interviewee answers in a way that they think is socially desirable.
b) The interviewee tends to agree or disagree with a set of questions.
c) The interviewee draws on and creates meaning at the same time.
d) The interviewee agrees to do anything that the interviewer asks them.
Acquiescence can be overcome by ensuring that some questions within a particular set imply an opposite
stance.
Question 10
Which of the following is not part of the feminist critique of structured interviewing?
a) All structured interviews are conducted with men.
b) When women interview women using this method it implies a hierarchical relationship.
c) It gives the impression of exploitation.
d) It prevents the feminist researcher from developing genuine relationships with respondents.
The feminist critique of structured interviewing has much in common with wider criticisms of quantitative
research and has led to many feminist researchers adopting a qualitative research strategy.
Chapter 09
Instructions
Choose your answers from a-d by clicking the radio button next to each choice and then press 'Submit' to get your
score.
Question 01
Which of the following is not an advantage of the self-completion questionnaire over the structured interview?
a) It is cheaper to administer.
b) It is quicker to administer.
c) It is easier to prompt the interviewee.
d) It is easier to remove interviewer effects.
Because the self-completion questionnaire is completed without the researcher present it is not possible for
them to assist respondents who are struggling to understand a specific question.
Question 02
Which of the following are disadvantages of the self-completed questionnaire?
a) Inability to confirm who completed the questionnaire.
b) Its unsuitability for some kinds of respondents.
c) Inability to ask many questions that are not directly relevant to the respondent.
d) All of the above.
A number of the disadvantages of self-completed questionnaires stem from the absence of the interviewer.
Question 03
Which of the following statements might assist response rates?
a) Please photocopy the questionnaire five times and pass on to your work colleagues.
b) Please make sure that the questionnaire is completed with a fountain pen.
c) Please read the attached journal article on the ontological foundations of positivism prior to completing the
questionnaire.
d) Please put the completed questionnaire in the enclosed stamped addressed envelope and place in the
mail out tray.
Enclosing a stamped addressed envelope is very important if the researcher wishes to achieve an acceptable
response rate.
Question 04
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What should the researcher do if they have achieved a low response rate?
a) Fill in some more questionnaires themselves.
b) Abandon the research project entirely.
c) Recognize and accept the possible limitations of a low response rate.
d) None of the above.
A substantial amount of published material is based on research that has a low response rate. The
researcher in this situation should include a discussion of what the implications of a low response rate are
for their research.
Question 05
One of the following statements is correct.
a) A questionnaire should run to at least twenty pages.
b) The questions should have no spaces between them so that the whole questionnaire looks small.
c) Only questionnaires that are A3 size achieve high response rates.
d) Clear presentation is more important than overall size.
If questions are cramped together so that they are difficult to differentiate from each other this is more likely
to reduce the completion rate than if the questionnaire is a little bit longer.
Question 06
Should closed answers be arranged:
a) horizontally.
b) vertically.
c) diagonally.
d) circuitously.
Question 07
Which of the following is likely to happen if clear instructions are not given as how the respondent should answer the
question?
a) Respondents may delete inappropriate answers rather than select appropriate ones.
b) Respondents may choose only one answer when they need to choose as many as apply.
c) Respondents may complete questions that are not relevant to them.
d) All of the above.
Clear instructions are vital as they allow for the respondent to move quickly and efficiently through the
questionnaire which may in turn aid response rate.
Question 08
Which of the following is not a major use of diaries in business research?
a) The diary as a method of data collection.
b) The diary as a document.
c) The diary as a log of researcher's literature search.
d) The diary as a log of the researcher's activities.
A diary can be an effective way of gaining an accurate record of respondent's daily routine.
Question 09
Which of the following is not a suitable topic for research using a diary?
a) The amount of time managers spend on particular activities.
b) The frequency with which managers undertake particular tasks.
c) The locations in which a trade union representative has discussions with individual members.
d) The volume of female managers in the retail industry.
Stewart (1967) used the diary method to look at managerial time.
Question 10
Which of the following comments demonstrates a process of attrition on the part of a diary respondent?
a) 'the researcher never checks that I am completing my diary correctly'.
b) 'I can't be bothered to complete this diary anymore'.
c) 'I keep forgetting to include the number of phone calls I make each day'.
d) 'I have decided to use the diary to record all of my personal thoughts and feelings'.
There is a danger that the respondent will lose interest in completing the diary and so will fail to record
accurate data.
Chapter 10
Instructions
Choose your answers from a-d by clicking the radio button next to each choice and then press 'Submit' to get your
score.
Question 01
Which of the following is an advantage of open questions?
a) They allow respondents to answer in their own terms.
b) They prevent respondents from giving unusual answers.
c) They allow respondents to put less effort into their answer.
d) They allow respondents to code their answers in advance.
An open question means that the respondent is not forced to use terminology that is decided by the
researcher in advance.
Question 02
What is the difference between a closed question and an open question?
a) A closed question means that the chances of unreliable post-coding is small, whereas an open question means
that there is a possibility of data processing error.
b) A closed question allows for the researchers terminology to be used, whereas an open question allows the
respondent to use terms they are familiar with.
c) A closed question allows for easy processing, whereas coding an open question can be very timeconsuming.
d) All of the above.
Both closed and open questions have a range of advantages and disadvantages and their use depends upon
the research strategy and research design that have been selected.
Question 03
Which of the following is an example of a question about normative standards and values?
a) How many workers are employed at this plant?
b) What is your attitude towards the management at this plant?
c) Do you always cast your vote in trade union elections?
d) Are you aware of the main features of the European Union Directive for informing and consulting employees?
Answer (c) is asking for the respondent to reveal a behavioural norm. These types of questions are closely
related to question about attitudes and beliefs.
Question 04
If one of your research questions is 'what role do HR Departments play in manufacturing companies?' which of the
following questions should you include in your questionnaire?
a) Does your organisation manufacture red cars or blue cars?
b) How much corporation tax did your organisation pay in the last financial year?
c) Does your organisation employ a Director of HR?
d) Does the HR Department have an annual Christmas party?
It is important to keep in mind your overall research questions so that you ask questions that will contribute
to your answering of these questions.
Question 05
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Why is it important to avoid ambiguous terms when designing questions?
a) Respondents may not understand the question.
b) Respondents may operate with a different frame of reference.
c) Respondents may think the question is less important.
d) Respondents may have to ask for help when completing the questionnaire.
An ambiguous term such as 'often' or 'management' may mean different things to different respondents.
Question 06
Which of the following is a double-barrelled question?
a) How satisfied are you with the performance appraisal system?
b) How satisfied are you with investment levels in new and existing software packages?
c) How satisfied are you with the organisations marketing strategy?
d) How satisfied are you with the levels of customer satisfaction?
Double-barrelled questions are ones that ask about two things. This question should in fact be split into two,
one about existing software and one about new software.
Question 07
Questions that include negatives should be avoided because:
a) The respondent may miss out the negative word.
b) The respondent may be unsure how to answer if the question includes a double negative.
c) The respondent may be led by the question.
d) All of the above.
When using a Likert scale it can be difficult to avoid asking a question with a negative, however the
researcher should attempt to avoid them if possible.
Question 08
Why is asking a vignette question about ethical behavior beneficial?
a) Because it allows for an abstract discussion of ethical values.
b) Because it ensures that the respondent does not have to reflect on their own ethicality.
c) Because it anchors the choice in a situation and prevents an unreflective reply.
d) Because it prevents the researcher from discussing sensitive issues.
By discussing a specific situation it is more likely that the respondent will reflect on their actual behaviour
rather than simply give a reply that matches normative values.
Question 09
Piloting questions is important because:
a) it enables the researcher to clear up any confusion.
b) it enables the researcher to collect additional data.
c) it enables the researcher to get an idea of likely response rate.
d) it enables the researcher to see if their questions can fly.
Piloting can be crucial in seeing not just that the survey questions work well, but also that the research
instrument is suitable.
Question 10
Which of the following is not an advantage of using existing questions?
a) They will have already been piloted for you.
b) You will be able to investigate any reliability and validity testing that has taken place.
c) You will be able to claim your work is entirely original.
d) You will be able to make comparisons with other research.
You are advised to contact the researchers concerned in order to seek permission to use questions that they
have devised.
Chapter 11
Instructions
Choose your answers from a-d by clicking the radio button next to each choice and then press 'Submit' to get your
score.
Question 01
Which of the following is not an example of a problem with using social survey research to investigate behaviour?
a) Respondents tend to answer by giving the most socially desirable answer.
b) Respondents may inadvertently omit key terms in the question.
c) Respondents may not give an honest reply to what they see as a threatening question.
d) Respondents may be unwilling to reveal information as they believe they are likely to be identified.
An advantage of social survey research is that the researcher can ensure that the anonymity of the
respondent is maintained by administering the same questions to each individual.
Question 02
What is structured observation?
a) The analysis of tall buildings.
b) A technique in which the researcher observes behaviour from one position in the workplace.
c) A technique in which the researcher uses specific rules for behavior observation.
d) A technique in which the researcher observes behavior from a covert location.
Structured observation involves the researcher formulating in advance the rules of an observation. These
rules inform observers about what behaviors they should look for and how they should record them.
Question 03
In Mintzberg's (1973) study of managerial work, structured data were collected by which method?
a) A mail record which described each piece of mail and the action taken to respond to it.
b) A travel record which described the number of times a manager travelled between regional offices.
c) A lunch record which described the time managers took for lunch breaks.
d) A banter record which described all of the informal humorous conversations managers had with subordinates.
Mintzberg also used a chronology record and a contact record during his study of managers. These
described that activity patterns and the verbal contact of managers.
Question 04
When devising an observation schedule it is important that the observer:
a) has a clear focus about who or what they are observing.
b) uses a recording system that is easy to operate.
c) uses mutually exclusive and inclusive categories.
d) all of the above.
Even if the observer is able to achieve each of these things there will still be an element of interpretation on
their part when completing the schedule.
Question 05
Which of the following is a strategy for observing the behaviour of a bank manager in a structured fashion?
a) A daily observation of their morning briefing to the branch.
b) Observations of their interactions with customers.
c) Four observations during the day lasting twenty-five minutes each.
d) Observation of all filing conducted by the manager each day.
By spacing observations throughout the day it is more likely that the observer will be able to ensure the
generalizability of the research into bank managers.
Question 06
Following Martin & Bateson (1986) an observation of a specific individual for a set period of time is an example of:
a) scan sampling.
b) focal sampling.
c) ad libitum sampling.
d) behaviour sampling.
Focal sampling involves the observer recording all examples of whatever forms of behaviour are under
review.
Question 07
The difference between inter-observer consistency and intra-observer consistency is:
a) inter-observer consistency refers to the degree to which different observers agree, whereas intra-observer
consistency refers to the degree one observer remains consistent over time.
b) inter-observer consistency refers to the need for all observations to be conducted at identical times, whereas intraobserver consistency refers to the need for one observer to observe only one behaviour.
c) inter-observer consistency refers to the practice of observers observing each other, whereas intra-observer
consistency refers to the practice of observer self-assessment.
d) inter-observer consistency refers to the degree the subjects demonstrate the same behaviours, whereas intraobserver consistency refers to the degree that the subjects demonstrate different behaviours.
Both inter-observer consistency and intra-observer consistency are important tests for the reliability of
structured observations.
Question 08
What is the benefit of a conducting a structured observation using a field stimulation?
a) It is an overtly ethical form of research.
b) It ensures that the subjects are fully informed of the research.
c) It reduces the problem of subject reactivity.
d) It is usually conducted outdoors.
A researcher using a field stimulation such as mystery shopping is more likely to observe natural behavior
because the subject does not know they are being observed; something which can lead to ethical concerns.
Question 09
Which issues can be observed more effectively during an organisational simulation than in a 'real' organizational
setting?
a) Time managers spend on customer complaints.
b) Distance managers walk each day.
c) Decision making and problem solving.
d) Attitudes towards health and safety.
By contriving a situation the researcher can not only look in more detail at issues such as problem solving
and decision making but they also have the ability to collect a large amount of data in a relatively short
period of time.
Question 10
A criticism of structured observation is that it:
a) neglects the context within which behaviour occurs.
b) neglects the links between behaviour and personality.
c) neglects the role of the structures of capitalism that influence behaviour.
d) neglects the importance of language in organizational settings.
By ignoring the wider context within which subjects operate there is a tendency for structured observation to
aim at universal explanations for behaviour which may play down differences between, for example, different
occupations.
Chapter 12
Instructions
Choose your answers from a-d by clicking the radio button next to each choice and then press 'Submit' to get your
score.
Question 01
Which of the following questions can be answered using content analysis?
a) How do managers behave in the face of employment insecurity?
b) How do the media report corporate re-branding exercises?
c) What effect does organizational size have on marketing strategy?
d) What are the most popular leisure activities amongst the over-50s?
Content analysis is often used to examine the mass media and the manner in which it covers certain issues.
Question 02
Which of the following is not a main characteristic of content analysis?
a) Quantification of the content of selected texts.
b) Systematic analysis.
c) Discursive deconstruction.
d) Objectivity.
Content analysis can either focus on the apparent content of a text or its latent content, however either way
its focus remains very much on the quantification of the data.
Question 03
What is the first stage of sampling when conducting a content analysis on media reports?
a) Record all television news programmes for a week.
b) Define which part of the media is going to be analysed.
c) Assess the timescales within which you are going to select texts.
d) Identify how each variable will be coded.
It is important when undertaking a content analysis of the mass media that the first task undertaken, when
identifying a sample, is which type of media will the research focus upon.
Question 04
What is the benefit of focussing a content analysis on specific words?
a) It enables the researcher to assess a text's grammatical sophistication.
b) It enables the researcher to measure the time taken to construct the text.
c) It enables the researcher to show which interpretative frameworks are used in the text.
d) It enables the researcher to judge the future use of specific words in specific contexts.
Researchers who use content analysis to count the frequency of certain words, sentences or phrases are
then able to infer from this which interpretative frameworks different authors are drawing from.
Question 05
What is a coding schedule?
a) A form into which all the data relating to an item is entered.
b) A form ensuring that all of the different categories are mutually exclusive.
c) A form which sets out the interpretative framework of the researcher.
d) A form which measures the relationship between different categories.
A coding schedule is the item that the coder will use to record all of the information relevant in a specific
text. A new schedule is required for each text.
Question 06
What does a coding manual contain?
a) Information about the research questions.
b) Information about the research subjects.
c) Information about how the different coding categories are to be defined.
d) Information about how many times the different coding categories are used in a text.
The coding manual is sometimes referred to as the content analysis dictionary. It is a statement of
instructions to coders that specifies the categories that will be used to classify the text.
Question 07
What must a researcher be aware of when using a term such as management in a coding scheme?
a) Potential confusion because the term management can have different meanings.
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b) Potential confusion because management does not form one single unit of analysis.
c) Potential confusion because management has different meaning in different languages.
d) All of the above.
Because a term such as management can have different meanings it is vital that a coding scheme is clear
about the manner in which it is to be used.
Question 08
Which of the following is an advantage of content analysis?
a) It is a very transparent form of research.
b) It is able to easily incorporate a longitudinal element.
c) It minimises the impact of the researcher on the subject of study.
d) All of the above.
Content analysis is a flexible method that allows for information about a wide range of issues to be
generated.
Question 09
Which of the following is true?
a) It is impossible to issue the same instructions to all coders.
b) It is impossible to devise coding manuals that do not require coders to undertake some interpretation.
c) It is impossible to understand the social world by studying the mass media.
d) It is impossible to use content analysis to look at elite groups.
This is one of the disadvantages of content analysis because coders act as knowledge participants whose
interpretations may not necessarily correspond.
Question 10
Content analysis can be criticised because:
a) it is an obscure and opaque method.
b) it focuses solely on questions of why in business research.
c) relevant documents are hard to obtain.
d) it is atheoretical as it focuses on what can be measured not what is theoretically important.
By focusing on what can be measured content analysis can be accused of diminishing the importance of
theoretically significant information. This is not necessarily true of all content analyses.
STA630 Research Methods solved MCQs from Book E
Chapter 17
Question 01
Organizational ethnography is distinctive because:
a) it is concerned with social behaviour.
b) it is conducted across a larger number of environments.
c) it is concerned with social relations that are related to goal-directed activities.
d) its methodological reputation is subject to more intense challenge.
Rosen (1991) argues that organizational ethnography is concerned with social relations that are related to
goal-directed activities, whereas traditional anthropology is more concerned with social relations in general.
Question 02
What is the difference between ethnography and participant observation?
a) Ethnography is concerned with an organisations culture, whereas participant observation is concerned with an
organisations strategy.
b) Ethnography refers to the method and the written product of the research, whereas participant
observation refers only to the method.
c) Ethnography is more subjective, whereas participant observation is more objective.
d) Ethnography allows for a longer period of immersion in a particular context than participant observation.
Distinguishing between ethnography and participant observation is often very difficult. However, one
important difference is that ethnography can sometimes be a more holistic term relating the product of the
research as well as the method.
Question 03
Which of the following is not an example of a 'classic' organizational ethnography?
a) Beynon's (1975) study of the Ford Motor Company's Halewood plant.
b) Wylie's (1972) study of door to door salesmen.
c) Roy's (1958) period as a machine operator.
d) Watson's (1994) investigation into managerial identity.
(a), (b), and (c) are all essential reading for any business researcher wishing to undertake a period as either
ethnographer or participant observer.
Question 04
When arranging access which attribute should ethnographers be prepared to adopt?
a) Ignorance.
b) Arrogance.
c) Invisibility.
d) Opportunism.
Buchannan, Boddy and McCalman (1988) suggest that researchers engaging in ethnography must be
prepared to balance what is desired against what is possible, and that they should be prepared to react to
different opportunities that arise.
Question 05
Which of the following is an ethical question that researchers undertaking a covert ethnography should ask
themselves?
a) What form should the findings be published in?
b) Does it ensure the principle of 'informed consent'?
c) How can the response rate be increased?
d) All of the above.
Informed consent ensures that research participants agree to participate on the basis of information
supplied to them. Covert ethnography means that it is impossible to obtain this.
Question 06
A researcher conducting an overt ethnography which involves them fully experiencing the job of a call centre operator
adopts which of the following roles?
a) Complete participant.
b) Participant-as-observer.
c) Observer-as-participant.
d) Complete observer.
The participant-as-observer actually participates in the daily lives of those they are studying but is also open
about their research. Delbridge (1998) is an example of a researcher adopting this role.
Question 07
To 'go native' means:
a) the researcher takes paid employment from the organisation they are researching.
b) the researcher adopts a covert role.
c) the researcher loses sight of their role as a researcher.
d) the researcher begins a relationship with a key informant.
'Going native' is the term used to describe an ethnographer who becomes so involved in their ethnographic
role that they no longer regard themselves as a researcher.
Question 08
Why might an ethnographer wish to avoid taking an active work-role as part of their ethnography?
a) They might be asked to become involved in something illegal or requiring deception.
b) They might expect to be paid for any work that they do.
c) They might believe that this will exploit there position as researcher.
d) They might fear 'going native'.
Most ethnographers find that it is hard not to become involved in various tasks or they will lose credibility.
Nevertheless the danger of being involved in something illegal or deceptive is a danger that the researcher
needs to be aware of.
Question 09
Which of the following is not a general principle for researchers to bear in mind when they are taking field notes?
a) Notes should be vivid and clear.
b) Copious amounts of notes should be taken if possible.
c) If notes are taken immediately after something interesting has been seen they can be written up when the
data collection has finished.
d) Tape recorders can be used to take brief notes.
It is vital that the ethnographer writes up field notes at the end of each day at the research site so that they
are more likely to record all important information. If the notes are not expanded upon until all data collection
has finished then the ethnographer may be unable to recall specific occurrences that informed their findings.
Question 10
Why is bringing an ethnography to an end often difficult forethnographers?
a) Because of the enjoyment that many ethnographersexperience.
b) Because it is a relaxed form of data collection.
c) Because it is unstructured it lacks an obvious end point.
d) Because writing up is a task to be avoided.
Not only can it be difficult for ethnographers to identify a definite end point the disengagement from the
research site has to be managed in an effective manner.
Chapter 18
Question 01
Why might qualitative researchers regard interviewing an attractive alternative to participant observation?
a) It is easier to accommodate into the researchers personal life.
b) It gives a better insight into the day to day functioning of the research site.
c) It is a considerably less time-consuming process.
d) It reduces the problem of reactivity.
Conducting interviews tends to require less of a sustained absence from work and/or family life than a
traditional ethnography. One important point to make though is that due to transcription and analysis it is
not necessarily less time consuming.
Question 02
Which of the following is a quality associated with qualitative interviewing as opposed to quantitative interviewing?
a) Replicability.
b) Generalizability.
c) Flexibility.
d) Sustainability.
Flexibility is important in a qualitative interview because it allows for the researcher to explore issue that
emerge during the actual interview.
Question 03
What is the difference between the types of answers that qualitative and quantitative interviews look to generate?
a) Qualitative interviews aim to generate one word answers, whereas quantitative interviews aim to generate in-depth
responses.
b) Qualitative interviews aim to generate answers relating to any unspecified topic, whereas quantitative interviews
aim to generate answers about one issue.
whereas quantitative
d) Qualitative interviews aim to generate predictable responses, whereas quantitative interviews aim to generate less
predictable answers.
One of the fundamental differences between the two overall types of interview is the amount of detail that
they seek within an interview situation.
Question 04
Which of the following researchers is conducting a semi-structured interview?
a) The researcher who has a schedule of fifty questions that they need answered by the participant.
b) The researcher who has planned only one question in advance.
c) The researcher who does not wish to use a tape recorder.
d) The researcher who has a guide which states some specific topics to be covered.
During a semi-structured interview the interviewee will have a great deal of leeway as to how they wish to
reply, although the interviewer will have a guide about topics that they wish to cover.
Question 05
Which of the following is not a specific challenge facing business researchers who wish to conduct qualitative
interviews?
a) Scheduling time with a senior manager.
b) Managers unwillingness to allow subordinates to leave productive activity.
c) The scarcity of potential research sites.
d) Maintaining confidentiality and anonymity at all stages of the research project.
There is a obviously a significant number of organisations for business researchers to choose from when
planning a research project, however the other challenges identified may need to be overcome for the
research to be successful.
Question 06
According to Kvale (1996) a successful interviewer is being sensitive when they:
a) relate what is said to what has been said.
b) listen attentively to what is said and how it is said.
c) Qualitative interviews aim to generate detailed answers to certain questions,
interviews aim to generate shorter, more easily codifiable responses.
c) give a purpose for the interview and rounding it off.
d) respond to what is important to interviewee.
Being sensitive is important because it will allow the interviewer to assess which issues are of particular
importance to the interviewee.
Question 07
Why should a business researcher record and transcribe interviews?
a) It allows a more thorough examination of what the interviewee has said.
b) It allows the researcher to demonstrate their technical proficiency.
c) The response of participants can be more readily shared with senior management.
d) It overcomes all possible ethical considerations.
Having an accurate record of the interview on a tape recording means not only that analysis is easier, but
also that the actual interview will not be punctuated by the researcher having to take notes.
Question 08
A practical tip for transcribing interviews is to:
a) get the respondent to do it.
b) transcribe only those sections of an interview that are important.
c) invest in the latest voice recognition software.
d) all of the above.
There is little point in transcribing information that is unlikely to be relevant to the research, and so
transcribing only those parts that are useful can reduce time significantly.
Question 09
Which of the following is an example of a dilemma that might face feminist business researchers conducting
qualitative interviews with women?
a) What role to adopt when interviewing male managers?
b) How many female employees should be interviewed for a representative sample?
c) How to overcome the issue of false consciousness?
d) What data to use when publishing findings?
A significant dilemma for feminist researchers (and possibly all qualitative researchers) is when the
respondent's interpretation of their experience and that of the researcher, experience a tension. The
researcher may be tempted to assume that the respondent is simply unaware of the way in which they are
being exploited and can therefore be said to have a false consciousness.
Question 10
Why does qualitative interviewing have an advantage over participant observation when it comes to longitudinal
research?
a) Repeat interviews are easier to organise.
b) It allows for a better exploration of key issues.
c) It is a more focused research method.
d) Participant observers are prone to 'go native' during longitudinal research.
Re-visiting research sites for follow up interviews is likely to be easier than arranging a series of subsequent
observations.
Chapter 19
Question 01
What is the difference between a focus group and a group interview?
a) A focus group is used only for political research, whereas group interviews are more widely used in the social
sciences.
b) A focus group is used at the planning stage of a research project, whereas a group interview is part of the actual
data collection.
c) A focus group is used to discuss a wide range of issues, whereas a group interview looks at one specific topic.
d) A focus group is used to analyse group interaction, whereas a group interview is used as a straight
forward data collection tool.
This is an important distinction because focus groups can be said to allow the researcher to think about not
just what people said but also how they said it in relation to others in the group.
Question 02
What particular role do focus groups have in business research?
a) They overcome the issue of organising individual interviews with senior managers.
b) They help to bypass the issues of anonymity and confidentiality.
c) They allow for an open discussion of power relations in the workplace.
d) They help individuals work together to identify potential solutions.
The dynamics of focus group discussion make it a useful way for organisational actors to consider new and
innovative ways of overcoming problems.
Question 03
How have focus groups been used in market research?
a) To assess the popularity of various existing products.
b) To help plan new HR strategies.
c) To discuss reactions to new advertisements.
d) To allow for research into farmers opinions.
Along with testing of new products market research often uses focus groups to assess reaction to new
advertisements.
Question 04
Which of the following is not a reason why it is preferable to tape record a focus group session?
a) It is quicker and easier to make brief notes about what is said.
b) It enables the researcher to identify which people are acting as opinion leaders.
c) Without a tape recording it is difficult to keep an accurate record of who said what.
d) It allows for analysis of how certain points are put forward.
The difficulty of making an accurate written record of an individual interview during the actual session is
drastically increased during a focus group. As a result tape recording is very important for this particular
method.
Question 05
What does the term theoretical saturation mean in reference to the number of focus groups to conduct?
a) The degree to which the researcher is able to present information about complex social theories.
b) The extent that the issues discussed across focus groups contradict each other.
c) When different groups are consistently making similar points about the major issues underdiscussion.
d) All of the above.
The achievement of theoretical saturation is not something that can be identified in advance, but will be
recognised by the researcher when the focus groups are not introducing any new insights into the
discussion of particular issues.
Question 06
When is it important for the focus group moderator to involve themselves in the discussion?
a) When the participants become passionate about the subject.
b) When the participants begin to discuss a completely unrelated topic.
c) When the moderator disagrees with a point being made.
d) When the moderator wants to praise a particular response from a participant.
It is important that a focus group is given a fairly free rein so that the discussion flows naturally, however the
moderator may wish to re-focus the participants of they begin to go off at a tangent. Having said this it is
also important to bear in mind that this tangent may also be of interest.
Question 07
Which of the following questions might be explored by using an employee focus group?
a) What is the extent of employee theft in the workplace?
b) Which manager is the least trusted by employees and why?
c) What are employee attitudes to corporate image?
d) What links are there between salary level and personal productivity?
It is likely that this is the only issue that employees would be willing to discuss in a group environment. The
others may all be issues that employees do not wish to reveal their attitudes to in front of colleagues.
Question 08
Disagreements in a focus group should be encouraged because:
a) they take the focus away from the specific issue under discussion.
b) they engender greater reflection on the part of participants.
c) they enhance the possibility of physical confrontation.
d) they help to create a negative atmosphere after the group has finished.
Disagreements in a focus group environment can allow the moderator to explore the reasons behind
differences of opinion and also allow participants to think about why they hold certain beliefs.
Question 09
By using the focus group method which issue can feminist researchers avoid?
a) Decontextualization.
b) Deconfiguration.
c) Destabilization.
d) Degenderization.
Decontextualization involves studying an individual without an appreciation of a social context. The benefit
of focus groups for feminist researchers is that as part of a group dencontextualization is minimized.
Question 10
Which of the following is not regarded as a limitation of focus groups?
a) The potential for the group to conform to one dominant opinion.
b) It does not allow for large volumes of data to be collected.
c) Organization of focus groups is not straight forward.
d) The researcher has less control over the proceedings.
Focus groups actually produce a very high volume of data in a short space of time, hence there is a
challenge for the researcher to both record, transcribe and analyse this data efficiently.
Chapter 20
Question 01
What is different between the way that traditional business research views language and the way that methods such
as conversation and discourse analysis do?
a) Traditional business research emphasizes the correct use of grammar, whereas CA and DA are concerned more
with modern grammar usage.
b) Traditional business research aims to develop a universal business language, whereas CA and DA are more
concerned with maintaining distinctive usage.
c) Traditional business research sees language as resource through which business is conducted, whereas
CA and DA see it as a topic in itself.
d) Traditional business research emphasizes the importance of managerial language, whereas CA and DA are more
concerned with that of workers.
Conversation and discourse analysis regard language as not just being reflective of what is going on in
organisations; instead, through these methodologies, language is seen what makes organisations.
Question 02
Ethnomethodology is:
a) a research methodology that looks at prioritises the role of ethnic minorities.
b) the study of covert research methods.
c) the study of how ethnography can be combined with social surveys.
d) the study of the methods of accomplishing social order.
Ethnomethodology argues that the social order does not pre-exist and it therefore focuses on how this order
is achieved through social action. It is regarded as the basis for conversation analysis.
Question 03
Which of the following is a definition of indexicality?
a) The process of completing the index to a written text.
b) The idea that the meaning of spoken words depends upon the context in which it is used.
c) The idea that the meaning of any social act can be universally categorised.
d) The process of drawing up definitions of words used in everydaylanguage.
Along with reflexivity, indexicality is a central idea in ethnomethodology and is relevant to understanding
conversation analysis.
Question 04
Why is conversation analysis sometimes described as having a positivist orientation?
a) Because it is a multi-faceted approach to data collection and analysis.
b) Because it uses rigorous and systematic procedures for data analysis.
c) Because of its emphasis of prior theoretical commitments.
d) Because of its concern with such things as organisational culture.
Conversation analysis has a number of features that are in tune with qualitative research, however other
features such as its emphasis upon systematic procedures for data analysis mean that it can be linked with
positivism.
Question 05
Which of then following is not an assumption of conversation analysis?
a) Theories of talk can be deduced in advance of data analysis.
b) Talk is viewed as exhibiting patterned sequences.
c) Talk is structured and cannot be ascribed to an individual's personal characteristics.
d) The nature of social order must be induced out of data.
Despite the suggestion that CA has much in common with positivist research it differs significantly in that it
has an inductive approach to theory development.
Question 06
Which of the following business issues can CA make a contribution to our understanding of?
a) The development of the double-entry bookkeeping system to modern accounting methods.
b) The use of balanced scorecards in organisational performance.
c) The range of rhetorical devices used in corporate boardroom meetings.
d) The importance of adjacency pairs in corporate boardroom meetings.
Adjacency pairs are an example of the tools used in conversation analysis. Rhetorical devices are more
commonly associated with discourse analysis.
Question 07
How does discourse analysis differ from conversation analysis?
a) Discourse analysis places less emphasis on naturally occurring talk.
b) Discourse analysis has a less uniform approach to language analysis.
c) Discourse analysis can be applied to a range of different texts.
d) All of the above.
Discourse analysis is not a total opposite to conversation analysis however it is important to stress that it is
a more wide ranging methodology because it looks to analyse the use of language in many different forms.
Question 08
Why might a charismatic leader use rhetorical devices?
a) To provoke a response from competitors.
b) To establish the organisation's rules and regulations.
c) To provoke identification and commitment amongst followers.
d) All of the above.
Rhetorical devices are a form of discourse that frame how something is formed and socially constructed; the
leaders image in this case.
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Question 09
Why might the researcher using discourse analysis be interested in corporate mission statements?
a) Because they are a way of categorising organisations.
b) Because they are indicators of corporate performance.
c) Because they are used to convey certain managerial values.
d) Because they are a legal requirement.
Corporate mission statements are a way of conveying certain messages which are designed to ensure that
employees identify with the organisation. Through a discourse analysis we can see the mechanisms through
which this can occur.
Question 10
Why has discourse not been of interest to mainstream management and business research?
a) It applies only to employees.
b) It is less focused on action.
c) It is does not allow for participant involvement.
d) It is not sufficiently focused on corporate performance.
Discourse analysis tends to focus on how organisations are constructed, whereas much mainstream
management research is concerned with actions that these corporations can take to be more successful.
STA630 100% solved MCQ from Book F
Chapter 21
Instructions
Choose your answers from a-d by clicking the radio button next to each choice and then press 'Submit' to
get your score.
Question 01
Which of the following is not a criteria suggested by Scott (1990) as a way of assessing the quality of documents?
a) Representativeness.
b) Credibility.
c) Validity.
d) Authenticity.
The fourth criterion suggested by Scott (1990) is that of meaning. This refers to the extent that a document is
clear and comprehensible.
Question 02
How does the use of personal diaries for data collection in qualitative research differ from their same use in
quantitative research?
a) Diarists are given more scope in terms of what they write about.
b) Diarists are asked to complete multiple-choice questions relating to their working day.
c) Diarists are required to report the exact number of relevant interactions they have had.
d) Diarists have to use the medium of art to express their feelings.
The use of diaries in qualitative research means that the diarist has less of a structure about what they have
to write. Bowey & Thorpe (1986) is a good example of the use of this research method.
Question 03
Which of the following questions should the researcher ask when considering the credibility of personal documents?
a) Is the purported author of the document the real author?
b) Has the document survived because it is favourable towards a certain organisation?
c) Does the document actually report the true feelings of the author?
d) Does the document contain codes that are hard to decipher?
This is an important assessment of the credibility of any personal document along with the factual accuracy
of reports.
Question 04
What is the problem with using a photograph of employees from a company brochure as a research source?
a) It may be difficult to re-print in published material.
b) It may not be representative of an employee's day to day experience of the company.
c) It might deflect attention away form the main focus of the research.
d) It may effect the anonymity of the employees in the picture.
This is an important assessment of the credibility of any personal document along with the factual accuracy
of reports.
Question 05
What type of document is often used by researchers conducting organizational post mortem research?
a) Private diaries.
b) Photographs.
c) Emails.
d) Public documents.
A number of researchers have looked at critical events and disasters and have used publicly available
documents to conduct their analyses.
Question 06
What particular use are organizational documents not in the public domain often put to by qualitative researchers?
a) To gain an insight into past managerial decisions.
b) To make profitability comparisons with other companies.
c) To assess the impact of marketing material.
d) All of the above.
Processual studies of organisations often use internal organizational documents to build up a 'timeline' of
organizational change.
Question 07
What impact might the idea of active audience/readers have on business researcher's data analysis?
a) It is possible that readers will resist the meaning intended by authors of texts.
b) It is possible that different researchers will have different interpretations of certain texts.
c) It is possible that the conclusions derived from certain data will be a reflection of the business researcher's
personal interpretation.
d) All of the above.
The argument that there is no one dominant way to read and interpret a text means that business
researchers must approach their data analysis with caution.
Question 08
What is distinctive about qualitative content analysis in comparison with quantitative data analysis?
a) It is a much more laborious process.
b) It allows for the constant reassessment of themes and categories.
c) It is much more explicit form of analysis.
d) It is much easier for other researchers to replicate.
In qualitative content analysis there is much greater movement between conceptualization, data collection,
analysis and interpretation than in quantitative content analysis.
Question 09
What contribution has semiotic analysis made to studies of advertising?
a) It has identified universal signs that apply across cultures.
b) It has established the correct way of presenting certain images.
c) It has shown how the same message can be interpreted in different ways.
d) It has demonstrated the links between advertising and purchasing.
Semiotic analysis aims to uncover the hidden meanings that reside in texts and as a result it has been able
to show how the same text, or advertisement, can have different meanings for different people.
Question 10
What is a critical hermeneutic approach?
a) One that incorporates all possible interpretations of a text.
b) One that attempts to understand a text from the author's perspective.
c) One that uses modern cultural standards to assess historical texts.
d) One that separates the researcher's personal interpretation from the analysis.
A critical hermeneutic approach makes an attempt to analyse a text not just from the perspective of the
author but also from the social and historical context of its production.
Chapter 22
Instructions
Choose your answers from a-d by clicking the radio button next to each choice and then press 'Submit' to get your
score.
Question 01
Why are general approaches to qualitative data analysis described as iterative?
a) Because they are based on formal, established guidelines.
b) Because they allow for the research process to follow a strictly linear trajectory.
c) Because there is a repetitive interplay between collection and analysis of data.
d) Because they should not fly too close to the sun.
Iterative means that analysis starts after some of the data have been collected and that the implications of
this analysis then inform the next stage of data collection.
Question 02
Which of the following is a potential limitation of analytic induction?
a) It is too rigorous to be described as a qualitative method of analysis.
b) It is unable to specify the necessary conditions for phenomena to occur.
c) It does not allow for reformulation of an identified hypothesis.
d) All of the above.
Analytic induction can identify what is sufficient for certain phenomena to occur but not what is necessary
Question 03
The two central features of grounded theory are:
a) codification and quantification.
b) the identification of theory and its testing against collected data.
c) linearity and simplicity.
d) the development of theory from data and recursiveness.
Grounded theory is based on the idea that theories should be induced from collected data and that this
should, in turn, inform additional data collection.
Question 04
What is the difference between coding in grounded theory and quantitative data analysis?
a) In grounded theory coding begins soon after the collection of initial data.
b) In grounded theory no pre-conceived codes are utilised.
c) In grounded theory different types and levels of coding are recognized.
d) All of the above.
Coding is the key process in grounded theory as it forms a major part of the iterative loop that is grounded
theory's dominant feature.
Question 05
According to Strauss and Corbin (1990) selective coding is the procedure of:
a) breaking down, examining and categorizing data.
b) putting data back together in new ways and making connections between categories.
c) choosing the core category and relating it to other categories.
d) establishing the causal relationships within the data.
Coding is the key process in grounded theory as it forms a major part of the iterative loop that is grounded
theory's dominant feature.
Question 06
Which of the following can represent a criticism of grounded theory?
a) There is no such thing as theory-neutral observation.
b) The social world is not 'out there' awaiting discovery.
c) Language is constitutive as well as reflective.
d) Data collection is not a straight forward linear process.
The notion that a researcher adopting a grounded theory approach can suspend their awareness of certain
theories and concepts can be questioned. It is more likely that what the researcher sees is conditioned by a
range of different factors.
Question 07
Which of the following is not an additional problem associated with grounded theory?
a) The time it takes to transcribe interviews and to engage in a genuinely iterative process.
b) The reluctance of researchers using grounded theory to adopt natural scientific methods.
c) The vague nature of many key points relating to the practice of grounded theory.
d) The fragmentation of data in different categories.
This could not be a criticism levelled at grounded theory because, as a qualitative research method, it
explicitly rejects the application of natural science methods to the social world.
Question 08
In what way does the practice of coding introduce an element of quantification into grounded theory?
a) The significance of data is sometimes based on its frequency within the whole data set.
b) Coding can allow for the researcher to measure the likelihood that a particular issue applies to the entire
population.
c) The core category should always be defined in advance of data collection.
d) None of the above.
Many researchers using grounded theory code their data on the basis of the number of times certain issues
occur within their analysis.
Question 09
What is the benefit of subjecting qualitative data to secondary analysis?
a) It overcomes ethical concerns about informed consent.
b) It enables the data to be analysed without the hindrance of a contextual understanding.
c) It is more likely that the findings will be published.
d) It can exploit the large volume of qualitative data that is under-explored.
Whilst a number of significant problems remain with the secondary analysis of qualitative data, there are
opportunities for researchers to exploit because of the volume of data that is cast aside as part of the
analysis.
Question 10
Narrative analysis in management research enables the researcher to:
a) relate all of their thought processes during data analysis.
b) discard all data that does not adhere to storytelling guidelines.
c) identify how managers make sense of their environment.
d) assess how managers will react in certain circumstances.
A narrative analysis allows the researcher to look at what different stories told by managers and others,
reveal about their attitudes towards the organisation.
Chapter 23
Instructions
Choose your answers from a-d by clicking the radio button next to each choice and then press 'Submit' to
get your score.
Question 01
What does the acronym 'CAQDAS' stand for?
a) Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software.
b) Complicated Analytical Questions Deserving Answers Soon.
c) Constant Aggravation Queried Directly And Swiftly.
d) Content Analysis Quantification: Durkheim and Statistics.
CAQDAS is one of the most significant developments in qualitative research over the last twenty years. The
label refers to a group of software packages such as NVivo, NUD*IST and ATLAS/ti, which are used for
qualitative data analysis.
Question 02
How is CAQDAS different from quantitative data analysis software?
a) It only works on Apple Mac computers.
b) It requires detailed knowledge of statistics.
c) There is no industry leader.
d) The programs do the analysis for you.
Within the field of quantitative data analysis SPSS is the most widely known and used statistical software
package, but with regard to CAQDAS there is no equivalent industry leader. Some of the most popular
programs today are NVivo, NUD*IST and ATLAS/ti, but other researchers may prefer MAXqda or the
Ethnograph.
Question 03
Which of the following is not a criticism of the use of CAQDAS in business research?
a) It reinforces the idea that code-and-retrieve is the only way to conduct qualitative analysis.
b) It results in the fragmentation of data and a loss of narrative flow.
c) It may not be suitable for focus group data.
d) It is not very fast or efficient at retrieving sections of data.
Various criticisms have been levelled at CAQDAS, including the idea that it has created a new orthodoxy of
'code-and-retrieve' qualitative analysis, that it fragments the data and that it is only useful for certain kinds of
qualitative data. However, most researchers would agree that CAQDAS offers a faster and more efficient way
of analyzing qualitative data than doing so by hand.
Question 04
Which of the following is not an advantage of using CAQDAS in business research?
a) It makes the process of qualitative data analysis more transparent.
b) It is faster and efficient than analyzing by hand.
c) It involves learning skills that are specific to each program.
d) It helps you to map out the relations between ideas and themes in the data.
There are numerous advantages to using CAQDAS, most of which centre on its speed and efficiency and the
way in which mapping out 'coding trees' of related ideas helps you to develop a grounded theory. While each
CAQDAS program is unique and involves different screens, functions and ways of representing the data, the
basic techniques of importing, coding, retrieving and searching will be common to all of the programs and
so provide you with a useful transferable skill.
Question 05
In what format should you import your project documents from Word into NVivo?
a) .jpeg or .mpeg
b) .txt or .rtf
c) .html or .htm
d) .doc or .mp3
You should import your documents from Word either without any formatting (as plain text files: .txt) or with
some formatting retained (in rich text format: .rtf).
Question 06
In which window can you read through, edit and code your documents?
a) Document Browser.
b) Node Explorer.
c) Project Pad.
d) Launch Pad.
Having imported the project files that you want to analyze, you can open each one and edit it as if it were a
Word document using the Document Browser. This is also where you can code your documents by applying
nodes to sections of the data.
Question 07
What are the two types of node used in NVivo?
a) Seed nodes and weed nodes.
b) Shrub nodes and grub nodes.
c) Flower nodes and power nodes.
d) Tree nodes and free nodes.
NVivo uses 'nodes' to represent codes or other items of information about the data in your project. There are
two main types of node: tree nodes are created as part of a network of inter-related concepts, while free
nodes are created independently of all other nodes.
Question 08
The Node Explorer dialog box allows you to:
a) apply codes to the data.
b) browse, edit or delete nodes.
c) create a memo document.
d) save and close your project file.
The Node Explorer dialog box appears if you click on 'Explore Nodes' from the Project Pad. Here you can
browse, edit/change or delete nodes, which allows you to modify your coding tree as the analysis
progresses. To apply the nodes (as codes) to the data, you need to open the document browser.
Question 09
What are in vivo codes?
a) Codes that were established before the data collection began.
b) Codes that reflect abstract theoretical concepts.
c) Codes derived from the language of research participants.
d) Higher level categories of codes, incorporating various node trees.
You can code the data using either the conceptual codes that appear in the node tree and as free nodes, or in
vivo codes. The latter term refers to codes that are derived from the words or phrases research participants'
use, as they appear in the text of an interview transcript or fieldnotes.
Question 10
Which of the following is a kind of search that can be carried out in NVivo?
a) Single node search.
b) Intersection search.
c) Specific text search.
d) All of the above.
There are three main types of search that you can conduct in NVivo: you can collect all the data coded under
a particular node (single node search), find data that have been coded by two or more particular nodes
(intersection search), or locate all the instances in which 'strings' of specific words or phrases are used
(specific text search). All of these can be accessed from the Search Tool dialog box, which you can reach
from the Project Pad.
Chapter 24
Instructions
Choose your answers from a-d by clicking the radio button next to each choice and then press 'Submit' to get your
score.
Question 01
Which of the following is not a characterization of the natural sciences?
a) The natural sciences are possessed with an epistemological unity.
b) The natural sciences are a complex area just like the social sciences.
c) The practices of natural scientists are revealed in their written accounts.
d) All natural scientists can be charged with the term positivist.
A significant difficulty with the way in which differences between research methods are presented is that
they are based on a characterization of the natural sciences as something which it is not.
Question 02
Qualitative research often adheres to a natural science model because:
a) it rejects all attempts to deduce theory in advance.
b) it places a large degree of emphasis on understanding context.
c) it can be used to investigate specific and tightly defined problems.
d) it is always constructivist in nature.
Not all qualitative research follows a grounded theory model as it is often used to address specific issues
that are defined in advance; similar to the methods commonly associated with the natural sciences.
Question 03
In what way does quantitative research study meaning?
a) Through detailed description of context.
b) Through careful observation of specific actions in the workplace.
c) Through an attempt to reveal the influence of capitalist structures on everyday life.
d) Through the exploration of attitudes via extensive survey questions.
The claim of qualitative researchers to be better able to gain access to a respondent's point of view is often
assumed, rather than demonstrated. Quantitative research's use of prior questioning to seek out different
attitudinal positions may give it better access to meaning.
Question 04
Why is it problematic to suggest that the choice of business research method reveals ontological and epistemological
assumptions?
a) Because business research should not be concerned with these issues.
b) Because the correspondence between a research strategy and a set of ontological and epistemological
assumptions is not straight forward.
c) Because the choice of research method is dictated by the research question.
d) Because the correspondence between a research strategy and either ontology or epistemology is impossible to
define.
Research methods are much more 'free-floating', in terms of their epistemological and ontological position,
than is often assumed when highlighting the divide between quantitative and qualitative research.
Question 05
Quantitative research does not always adhere to a deductive model because:
a) Its findings frequently suggest new departures and theoretical contributions.
b) Many survey-based studies are subjected to exploratory analyses.
c) There is a great deal of creativity in quantitative data analysis.
d) All of the above.
Quantitative research is not simply about theory testing; it can also be used to suggest new ways of viewing
the social world. Correspondingly qualitative research can also be used to test pre-conceived theories.
Question 06
Which method of data collection commonly associated with qualitative research can be seen as artificial?
a) Ethnography.
b) Participant observation.
c) Semi-structured interview.
d) All of the above.
Because an interview requires some degree of planning and preparation, and will normally remove the
interviewee from their workstation, it can be said to be an artificial situation.
Question 07
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What does Gephart (1988) mean by the term ethnostatistics?
a) The collection of statistical data using ethnographic methods.
b) The study of the use of statistics as a rhetorical device.
c) The use of statistical analysis by the participants of the research.
d) The statistical analysis of one specific context.
Ethnostatistics can be used to show how the language of statistics is used to persuade audiences of certain
arguments through the acquisition of greater legitimacy.
Question 08
Which form of data analysis can be applied to ethnographic accounts to establish links between in-depth accounts
and statistical analysis?
a) Discourse analysis.
b) Content analysis.
c) Mulitvariate analysis.
d) Bivariate analysis.
Hodson (1996) shows how a content analysis of ethnographies allows for quantitative and qualitative
research strategies to be closely linked.
Question 09
What is quasi-quantification?
a) Statistical analysis based upon synthetic data.
b) The application of quantitative methods in feminist research.
c) The allusions to quantity made by qualitative researchers.
d) The testing of the suitability of specific statistical tests.
Qualitative researchers often use terms such as 'many', 'often' or 'frequently' thereby alluding to the
importance of quantification in their data analysis.
Question 10
What benefit is there to qualitative researchers in providing information on the frequency of a particular perspective?
a) They are more likely to get published if they can report a high frequency.
b) It gives the reader a clear sense of the relative prevalence of the perspective.
c) It is useful for quantitative secondary analysis.\
d) All of the above
Qualitative researchers often use terms such as 'many', 'often' or 'frequently' thereby alluding to the
importance of quantification in their data analysis.
.
STA630 100% Solved MCQ from Books A
Chapter 01
I
Question 1
What is a 'grand theory'?
a) One that was proposed by one of the major theorists in the sociological tradition
b) One that is highly abstract and makes broad generalizations about the social world
c) An intermediate level explanation of observed regularities
d) A particularly satisfactory theory that makes the researcher feel happy
Question 2
What does an empiricist believe?
a) We should not apply natural science methods to social science research
b) It is the sociologist's aim to understand the meaning of social action
c) Knowledge, in the form of 'facts', should be gained through sensory experience
d) Research conducted within the British empire was biased and unreliable
Question 3
An inductive theory is one that:
a) Involves testing an explicitly defined hypothesis
b) Does not allow for findings to feed back into the stock of knowledge
c) Uses quantitative methods whenever possible
d) Allows theory to emerge out of the data
Question 4
What is the epistemological position held by a positivist?
a) There is no substitute for an in-depth, hermeneutic understanding of society
b) Scientific research should be based on value-free, empirical observations
c) Events and discourses in the social world prevent us from having direct knowledge of the natural
order
d) It is important to remain optimistic about our research, even when things go wrong
Question 5
The interpretivist view of the social sciences is that:
a) Their subject matter is fundamentally different to that of the natural sciences
b) We should aim to achieve the interpretive understanding of social action
c) It is important to study the way people make sense of their everyday worlds
d) All of the above
Question 6
Which of the following is an ontological question?
a) Should I use questionnaires or interviews in my project?
b) What can (and should) be considered acceptable forms of knowledge?
c) How long is it since I last visited the dentist?
d) Do social entities have an objective reality, external to social actors?
Question 7
The constructionist ontological position suggests that:
a) Social phenomena and their meanings are constantly being accomplished by social actors
b) Individuals are born into a world of rules and structures that they cannot change
c) Building and construction work presents an ideal opportunity to exercise the sociological imagination
d) Social facts and objects have an external reality, independently of the people who perceive them
Question 8
The qualitative research strategy places a value on:
a) Using numbers, measurements and statistical techniques
b) Generating theories through inductive research about social meanings
c) Conducting research that is of a very high quality
d) All of the above
Question 9
Which of the following is an example of value-free research?
a) Conscious partiality
b) Sympathy for the underdog
c) Unstructured interviewing
d) None of the above
Question 10
An important practical issue to consider when designing a research project is:
a) Which theoretical perspective you find most interesting
b) Whether or not you have time to retile the bathroom first
c) How much time and money you have to conduct the research
d) Which colour of ring binder to present your work in
Chapter 02
Instructions
Choose your answers from a-d by clicking the radio button next to each choice and then press 'Submit' to
get your score.
Question 1
What is a research design?
a) A way of conducting research that is not grounded in theory
b) The choice between using qualitative or quantitative methods
c) The style in which you present your research findings, e.g. a graph
d) A framework for every stage of the collection and analysis of data
Question 2
If a study is "reliable", this means that:
a) It was conducted by a reputable researcher who can be trusted
b) The measures devised for concepts are stable on different occasions
c) The findings can be generalized to other social settings
d) The methods are stated clearly enough for the research to be replicated
Question 3
"Internal validity" refers to:
a) Whether or not there is really a causal relationship between two variables
b) Whether or not the findings are relevant to the participants' everyday lives
c) The degree to which the researcher feels that this was a worthwhile project
d) How accurately the measurements represent underlying concepts
Question 4
Lincoln & Guba (1985) propose that an alternative criterion for evaluating qualitative research would be:
a) Impressiveness
b) Trustworthiness
c) Joyfulness
d) Messiness
Question 5
Naturalism has been defined as:
a) Viewing natural and social objects as belonging to the same realm
b) Being true to the nature of the phenomenon under investigation
c) Minimising the intrusion of artificial methods of data collection into the field
d) All of the above
Question 6
In an experimental design, the dependent variable is:
a) The one that is not manipulated and in which any changes are observed
b) The one that is manipulated in order to observe any effects on the other
c) A measure of the extent to which personal values affect research
d) An ambiguous concept whose meaning depends on how it is defined
Question 7
What is a cross-sectional design?
a) A study of one particular section of society, e.g. the middle classes
b) One that is devised when the researcher is in a bad mood
c) The collection of data from more than one case at one moment in time
d) A comparison of two or more variables over a long period of time
Question 8
Survey research is cross-sectional and therefore:
a) High in replicability but low in internal validity
b) High in internal validity but low in reliability
c) High in ecological validity but low in external validity
d) None of the above
Question 9
Panel and cohort designs differ, in that:
a) Cohort studies involve quantitative research, whereas panel studies are qualitative
b) A panel study does not need rules to handle new entrants to households
c) Only a cohort study will suffer from sample attrition
d) A panel study can distinguish between age effects and cohort effects, but a cohort design
cannot
Question 10
Cross cultural studies are an example of:
a) Case study design
b) Comparative design
c) Experimental design
d) Longitudinal design
Chapter 03
Instructions
Choose your answers from a-d by clicking the radio button next to each choice and then press 'Submit' to
get your score.
Question 1
Which of the following requirements for a dissertation may depend on your institution?
a) Whether an abstract should be included
b) The format for referencing
c) The word limit
d) All of the above
Question 2
The role of a project supervisor is to:
a) Make sure you keep to your schedule and deadlines
b) Provide intellectual support, guidance and critical feedback
c) Negotiate access to the research setting on the student's behalf
d) Give you a reading list
Question 3
You can manage your time and resources best, by:
a) Working out a timetable
b) Finding out what resources are readily available to you
c) Calculating a budget for likely expenditure
d) All of the above
Question 4
What did Marx (1997) mean when he suggested that "intellectual puzzles and contradictions" can be a
possible source of research questions?
a) The researcher may feel that there is a contradiction in the literature, presenting a "puzzle" to
be solved
b) Students can develop their IQ levels by attempting to solve intellectual puzzles
c) Unless you can find a logical contradiction, you have no basis for conducting research
d) All of life is a puzzle, so any aspect of life can be researched
Question 5
How can you tell if your research questions are really good?
a) If they guide your literature search
b) If they are linked together to help you construct a coherent argument
c) If they force you to narrow the scope of your research
d) All of the above
Question 6
Which of the following should be included in a research proposal?
a) Your academic status and experience
b) The difficulties you encountered with your previous reading on the topic
c) Your choice of research methods and reasons for choosing them
d) All of the above
Question 7
Which of the following should you think about when preparing your research?
a) Your sample frame and sampling strategy
b) The ethical issues that might arise
c) Negotiating access to the setting
d) All of the above
Question 8
Why is it helpful to keep a research diary or log book while you are conducting your project?
a) To give you something to do in the early stages of your research when nothing is happening
b) Because funding councils generally demand to see written evidence that you were working every
day during the period of the research
c) To keep a record of what you did and what happened throughout the research process
d) It can be added to your dissertation to ensure that you reach the required word limit
Question 9
What can you do to ensure your physical safety during your research?
a) Be alert to the possibility of exposure to danger
b) Avoid interviewing alone in the respondent's residence
c) Make sure someone knows where you are and how you can contact them in an emergency
d) All of the above
Question 10
What practical steps can you take before you actually start your research?
a) Find out exactly what your institution's requirements are for a dissertation
b) Make sure you are familiar with the hardware and software you plan to use
c) Apply for clearance of your project through an ethics committee
d) All of the above
Chapter 04
Instructions
Choose your answers from a-d by clicking the radio button next to each choice and then press 'Submit' to
get your score.
Question 1
Why do you need to review the existing literature?
a) To make sure you have a long list of references
b) Because without it, you could never reach the required word-count
c) To find out what is already known about your area of interest
d) To help in your general studying
Question 2
To read critically means:
a) Taking an opposing point of view to the ideas and opinions expressed
b) Skimming through the material because most of it is just padding
c) Evaluating what you read in terms of your own research questions
d) Being negative about something before you read it
Question 3
Which two of the following are legitimate frameworks for setting out a literature review: 1. Constructing intertextual
coherence, 2. Deconstruction of textual coherence, 3. Problematizing the situation, 4. Resolving
discovered problems?
a) 1 and 2
b) 2 and 3
c) 1 and 3
d) 2 and 4
Question 4
A systematic literature review is:
a) One which starts in your own library, then goes to on-line databases and, finally, to the internet
b) A replicable, scientific and transparent process
c) One which gives equal attention to the principal contributors to the area
d) A responsible, professional process of time-management for research
Question 5
What is meta-analysis?
a) A technique of correcting for the errors in individual studies within a surveyof a large
number of studies, to demonstrate the effect of a particular variable
b) A process of secondary-data gathering to assemble all the possibilities for a variable's effects
c) A substitute for original research, which is justified by constraints of time or money
d) A specialized step in a computer software program (SPSS e.g.)
Question 6
What is meta-ethnography?
a) A technique for reviewing literature based exclusively on ethnographic studies
b) A technique for synthesizing interpretations drawn from a number of separatequalitative
studies of the same phenomena
c) A process used to make generalizations from a range of qualitative studies
d) A process of surveying only that literature contained within a single library
Question 7
What is a narrative literature review?
a) An historically-based review, starting with the earliest contributions to the field
b) A review based exclusively on stories about companies, in book and case-study form
c) A paraphrase style of reviewing which does not require referencing
d) An initial impression of the topic which you will understand more fully as you conduct your
research
Question 8
When accessing the internet, which of these steps is the most essential?
a) Recording the full URL
b) Noting the access dates
c) Downloading material to be referenced
d) They are all equally important
Question 9
According to the Harvard referencing convention, which is the correct reference?
a) Bryman, A. (2008, 3e) Social Research Methods, Oxford; OxfordUniversity Press
b) Bryman (2008, second edition), Oxford University Press
c) Bryman, Alan, Social Research Methods (2008: OUP)
d) Bryman, A. Social Research Methods (2008)
Question 10
Which of the following statements about plagiarism is most accurate?
a) It is so easy to "copy and paste" from the internet that everyone does it nowadays. If a proper
reference is given, where is the harm in that?
b) How can we say for sure where our own ideas come from exactly? If we tried to give a reference for
everything we could never hope to succeed.
c) Any suggestion that we have written what another actually wrote is morally wrong. Anyway,
the whole point of a literature review is to show what we have read and what we thought about it.
d) Plagiarism is such an awful crime that those found guilty should be obliged to wear a scarlet "P" on
their clothing.
Chapter 05
Instructions
Choose your answers from a-d by clicking the radio button next to each choice and then press 'Submit' to
get your score.
Question 1
There is a tendency for debates about ethics in social research to focus on the most extreme cases of
ethical transgression. Why might this create a misleading impression?
a) Because these studies did not actually take place
b) Because it makes social researchers look like nasty, unscrupulous people
c) Because this implies that ethical concerns do not pervade all social research
d) Because most social research is in fact ethically sound and infallible
Question 2
Which of the following ideas is not associated with the stance of situation ethics?
a) Anything goes
b) Principled relativism
c) The end justifies the means
d) No choice
Question 3
Why is it argued that ethical transgression is pervasive in social research?
a) Because most researchers do not bother to follow a professional code of ethics
b) Because researchers rarely provide their participants with all the information they might want
to know about a project
c) Because it helps us to justify the more extreme forms of unethical conduct that we prefer to pursue
d) Because sociologists want to present themselves as inconsiderate and careless
Question 4
Which of the following is a form of harm that might be suffered by research participants?
a) Physical injury
b) Stress and anxiety
c) Impaired development
d) All of the above
Question 5
Why is it important that personal data about research participants are kept within secure, confidential
records?
a) So that the participants cannot find out what has been written about them
b) In case individuals, places or organizations can be harmed through identification or
disclosure of personal information
c) So that government officials, teachers and other people in authority can have easy access to the
data
d) To enable the researcher to track down individuals and find out more about their lives
Question 6
Which method is most commonly associated with a lack of informed consent?
a) In-depth interviewing
b) Qualitative content analysis
c) Covert observation
d) Structured interviewing
Question 7
Why is it "easier said than done" to ensure that the principle of informed consent is adhered to?
a) It is not practicable to present every participant with all the information about the study
b) Sometimes it is desirable to withhold certain pieces of information, such as the length of time an
interview will take
c) If the participants knew exactly what the researcher was intending to study, they might change their
behaviour
d) All of the above
Question 8
Apart from the fact that it is "not a nice thing to do" (p125), what is an important ethical disadvantage of
deceiving participants?
a) It can damage the professional reputation of the researcher and their discipline
b) It makes it more difficult to gain access to deviant or hidden populations
c) It means that records of personal data about the participants cannot be made anonymous
d) None of the above
Question 9
Which of the following factors does not add a political dimension to the research process?
a) The researcher's values, beliefs and prior assumptions
b) The response rate of a social survey
c) The vested interests of the funding body
d) A gatekeeper's concerns about representation
Question 10
Whose side did Becker suggest the social researcher should take?
a) The underdog
b) The fat cat
c) The cash cow
d) The sitting duck
Chapter 06
Instructions
Choose your answers from a-d by clicking the radio button next to each choice and then
press 'Submit' to get your score.
Question 1
An operational definition is:
a) One that bears no relation to the underlying concept
b) An abstract, theoretical definition of a concept
c) A definition of a concept in terms of specific, empirical measures
d) One that refers to opera singers and their work
Question 2
The importance of measurement in quantitative research is that:
a) It allows us to delineate fine differences between people or cases
b) It provides a consistent device or yardstick
c) It allows for precise estimates of the degree of relationship between concepts
d) All of the above
Question 3
The difference between measures and indicators is that:
a) Measures are unambiguous quantities, whereas indicators are devised from common sense
understandings
b) Indicators have a more direct relationship to the underlying concept than measures
c) Measures are intuitively devised and then applied as if they were direct indicators of a concept
d) Indicators are unambiguous quantities, whereas measures are subjective and value-laden
Question 4
The split-half method is used as a test of:
a) Stability
b) Internal reliability
c) Inter-observer consistency
d) External validity
Question 5
Which of the following is not a form of measurement validity?
a) Concurrent validity
b) Face validity
c) Conductive validity
d) Convergent validity
Question 6
Quantitative social researchers rarely claim to have established causality because:
a) They are more concerned with publishing the results of their reliability tests
b) They do not believe that this is an appropriate goal to be striving for
c) They keep forgetting which of the variables they have manipulated
d) They tend to use cross-sectional designs, which produce only correlations
Question 7
One of the preoccupations of quantitative researchers is with generalization, which is a
sign of:
a) External validity
b) Internal reliability
c) External reliability
d) Internal validity
Question 8
Quantitative research has been criticised because:
a) The measurement process suggests a spurious and artificial sense of accuracy
b) The reliance on instruments and procedures makes it high in ecological validity
c) It underestimates the similarities between objects in the natural and social worlds
d) All of the above
Question 9
The term 'reverse operationism' means that:
a) The theories we devise will often hinder our attempts to measure concepts
b) The measurements we devise can sometimes help to develop a theory
c) Techniques such as factor analysis have no place in social research
d) Driving instructors always make you practice the most difficult manoeuvre
Question 10
Written accounts of quantitative research rarely include the results of reliability and
validity tests because:
a) Researchers are more interested in reporting their operational definitions
b) Researchers don't really think that these tests are important
c) Journal editors have banned these kinds of articles
d) Researchers are more interested in reporting their substantive findings
Chapter 07
Instructions
Choose your answers from a-d by clicking the radio button next to each choice and then
press 'Submit' to get your score.
Question 1
A sampling frame is:
a) A summary of the various stages involved in designing a survey
b) An outline view of all the main clusters of units in a sample
c) A list of all the units in the population from which a sample will be selected
d) A wooden frame used to display tables of random numbers
Question 2
A simple random sample is one in which:
a) From a random starting point, every nth unit from the sampling frame is selected
b) A non-probability strategy is used, making the results difficult to generalize
c) The researcher has a certain quota of respondents to fill for various social groups
d) Every unit of the population has an equal chance of being selected
Question 3
It is helpful to use a multi-stage cluster sample when:
a) The population is widely dispersed geographically
b) You have limited time and money available for travelling
c) You want to use a probability sample in order to generalise the results
d) All of the above
Question 4
The standard error is a statistical measure of:
a) The normal distribution of scores around the sample mean
b) The extent to which a sample mean is likely to differ from the population mean
c) The clustering of scores at each end of a survey scale
d) The degree to which a sample has been accurately stratified
Question 5
What effect does increasing the sample size have upon the sampling error?
a) It reduces the sampling error
b) It increases the sampling error
c) It has no effect on the sampling error
d) None of the above
Question 6
Which of the following is not a type of non-probability sampling?
a) Snowball sampling
b) Stratified random sampling
c) Quota sampling
d) Convenience sampling
Question 7
Snowball sampling can help the researcher to:
a) Access deviant or hidden populations
b) Theorise inductively in a qualitative study
c) Overcome the problem of not having an accessible sampling frame
d) All of the above
Question 8
Which of the following is not a characteristic of quota sampling?
a) The researcher chooses who to approach and so might bias the sample
b) Those who are available to be surveyed in public places are unlikely to constitute a representative
sample
c) The random selection of units makes it possible to calculate the standard error
d) It is a relatively fast and cheap way of finding out about public opinions
Question 9
The findings from a study of young single mothers at a university can be generalised to
the population of:
a) All young single mothers at that university
b) All young single mothers in that society
c) All single mothers in all universities
d) All young women in that university
Question 10
The term 'data processing error' refers to:
a) Activities or events related to the sampling process, e.g. non-response
b) Faulty techniques of coding and managing data
c) Problems with the implementation of the research process
d) The unavoidable discrepancy between the sample and the population
Chapter 08
Instructions
Choose your answers from a-d by clicking the radio button next to each choice and then
press 'Submit' to get your score.
Question 1
Why is it important for structured interviews to follow a standardized procedure?
a) To increase validity, as the interview can be adapted for each respondent
b) To increase reliability, because all respondents receive the same interview stimulus
c) To allow for an in-depth exploration of the topic
d) To make it easier for untrained interviewers to carry out complex surveys
Question 2
Standardizing the interview schedule can reduce interviewer variation in terms of:
a) The way in which questions are phrased by the interviewer
b) The order in which questions are asked
c) The procedures used to code and analyse survey data
d) All of the above
Question 3
Closed ended questions are those that:
a) Have a fixed range of possible answers
b) Prevent respondents from allocating themselves to a category
c) Encourage detailed, elaborate responses
d) Relate to the basic demographic characteristics of respondents
Question 4
Which of the following is not a disadvantage of telephone interviewing?
a) Researchers do not have to spend so much time and money on travelling
b) Some people in the target population may not own a telephone
c) It can be difficult to build rapport over the telephone
d) Interviewers cannot use visual cues such as show cards
Question 5
The acronym "CATI" stands for:
a) Camera-activated telescopic interviewing
b) Computer-assisted telephone interviewing
c) Corrective anti-terrorist interviewing
d) Critical analysis of telepathic interviewing
Question 6
Which of the following might you include in an introductory letter to respondents?
a) An explanation of who you are and who is funding your research
b) An overview of what the research is about and how the data will be collected
c) A statement of their ethical rights to anonymity, confidentiality, etc.
d) All of the above
Question 7
A filter question is one that:
a) Ensures that all respondents are asked every question on the schedule and in the same order
b) Leaves a space for respondents to write long and detailed answers
c) Helps the interviewer to avoid asking irrelevant questions bydirecting them elsewhere on the
schedule
d) Allows supervisors to distinguish between good and bad interviewers
Question 8
Which of the following is not advised when planning the question order of a structured
interview?
a) Be wary of asking an earlier question that alters the salience of later questions
b) Expect some variation in the order in which questions are asked
c) Leave questions about sensitive or embarrassing issues until later in the interview
d) Group the questions into logically organised sections
Question 9
A show card is:
a) One that prevents respondents from expressing their opinions about a statement
b) One that encourages explicit discussion of sensitive or personal information
c) One that prompts respondents to choose from a range of possible answers
d) One that researchers must present when they compete at pony club events
Question 10
The response set of "acquiescence" can be a problem in that:
a) Some people consistently agree or disagree with a set of questions or items
b) Respondents tend to give answers that they think are socially desirable
c) The structured interview is so conducive to reciprocity that male respondents find it hard to stop
talking
d) Researchers who wear very strong perfume will distract their respondents
Bryman: Social Research Methods: 3e
Chapter 09
Instructions
Choose your answers from a-d by clicking the radio button next to each choice and then
press 'Submit' to get your score.
Question 1
Which of the following statements is correct?
a) Self-completion questionnaires are a type of postal survey
b) Postal surveys can include self-completion or email surveys
c) Self-completion questionnaires can include postal or email surveys
d) Email surveys are a type of postal questionnaire
Question 2
One of the advantages of self-completion questionnaires over structured interviews is
that:
a) They are quicker and cheaper to administer
b) They create interviewer effects
c) They have greater measurement validity
d) They are less prone to inter-coder variation
Question 3
Which of the following is not a disadvantage of self-completion questionnaires compared
to structured interviews?
a) The respondent can read the whole questionnaire before answering the first question
b) The researcher cannot ask many closed-ended questions
c) The researcher cannot probe or prompt respondents for more detail
d) The respondent may not answer all questions, resulting in missing data
Question 4
Which of the following steps can be taken to improve response rates to a self-completion
questionnaire?
a) Write a personalized covering letter to introduce the research
b) Enclose a stamped addressed envelope with a postal questionnaire
c) Send out polite reminder letters
d) All of the above
Question 5
Why is it generally better to present fixed choice answers in vertical rather than
horizontal form?
a) It takes up less space on the page
b) It encourages respondents to choose more than one answer
c) It allows questions to be spread over more than one page
d) It makes the layout of the questionnaire more clear and unambiguous
Question 6
When using a Likert scale with a long list of items, it is usually better to:
a) Arrange the answers horizontally, in abbreviated form
b) List the answers vertically, for each consecutive item
c) Omit any instructions about how to select an answer
d) List all questions on one page and all answers on another
Question 7
In order to identify response sets in a Likert scale, you could:
a) Pre-code all items consistently from 1-5
b) Reverse the scoring of pre-coded answers
c) Only include items about socially desirable behaviours
d) Include explicit instructions to respondents not to deceive you
Question 8
Corti (1993) makes a distinction between two types of researcher-driven diary:
a) Valid and reliable diaries
b) Quantitative and qualitative diaries
c) Structured and free-text diaries
d) Open or closed answer diaries
Question 9
The 'time-use' diary can provide quantitative data about:
a) The amount of time respondents spend on certain activities every day
b) The subjective meanings that concepts of 'time' have for different people
c) The way respondents make sense of their life stories in narrative form
d) The historical significance of clocks, watches and other devices for measuring time
Question 10
One advantage of using diaries in quantitative research is that:
a) There is little danger of attrition, as respondents tend to be highly motivated
b) They are likely to elicit data about sensitive issues or deviant activities
c) They highlight the thoughts, feelings and experiences that are unique to each respondent
d) None of the above
Chapter 10
Instructions
Choose your answers from a-d by clicking the radio button next to each choice and then
press 'Submit' to get your score.
Question 1
An open question is one that:
a) Allows respondents to answer in their own terms
b) Does not suggest or provide a limited range of responses
c) Can help to generate answers for closed questions
d) All of the above
Question 2
In order to post-code answers to open questions, it is necessary to:
a) Count the frequency with which each answer has been given
b) Categorise unstructured material and assign a code number to each category
c) Identify the three most commonly cited responses and give them a code
d) Find out where each respondent lives and make a note of their postcode
Question 3
Which of the following is not an advantage of using closed questions in a survey?
a) It reduces the risk of variability in the way answers are recorded
b) It makes answers easier to process and analyse
c) They prevent respondents from giving spontaneous, unexpected answers
d) Closed questions are quicker and easier for respondents to complete
Question 4
Informant factual questions are those that:
a) Enquire about personal details such as age, income and occupation
b) Ask people about the characteristics of a social setting or entity that they know well
c) Seek to find out about people's attitudes and opinions on a range of topics
d) Try to identify the normative standards and values held by a social group
Question 5
Which of the following is a general rule of thumb for designing questions?
a) Always bear in mind your research questions
b) Never ask a closed question
c) Always use vignettes rather than open questions
d) Use ambiguous terms to put respondents at ease
Question 6
You should avoid using double-barrelled questions in a survey because:
a) They rely too much on a respondent's memory
b) They make the questions too long, so respondents lose interest
c) They are too abstract and general in scope
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d) They confuse respondents by asking about two different things
Question 7
Leading questions should also be avoided because:
a) They suggest ways of answering and so may bias the results
b) They create a mismatch between the question and its possible answers
c) They involve negative terms and unnecessary jargon
d) They ask about several different things at the same tim
Question 8
A vignette question is one that asks respondents to think about:
a) Family obligations to care for sick relatives
b) An intensely painful and sensitive issue in their personal life
c) A scenario involving imaginary characters in a realistic situation
d) Their favourite kind of salad dressing
Question 9
The value of piloting a questionnaire is that it helps you to:
a) Test out your questions on some of the people who will be in the final sample
b) Identify and amend any problems in the question wording, order and format
c) Find out what a trained pilot would think of the subject matter
d) All of the above
Question 10
A question bank is a useful resource for:
a) Studying the way questions have been successfully used in previous surveys
b) Stealing other people's questions without their permission
c) Learning more about your topic so that you can devise leading questions
d) Keeping the money from your funding agency in a safe place
STA630 Research Methods Solved MCQs from Book of
Allydog link
1. The following journal article would be an example of research;
"The benefits of florescent lighting on production in a factory setting."
Applied
Interview
Basic
Stupid (hint: don't select this one)
2. The is only useful if the concepts, ideas, questions, etc. to be
investigated are both testable and falsifiable.
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Experimental Method
Scientific Method
3. Many experiments conducted at universities have Introductory Psychology
students act as participants, and then generalize the findings of the study to the
general public. In this case, ALL college students in the US can be considered the
"population", but those students who participated in the experiment themselves
are called the:
control group
sample
experimental group
guinea pigs
4. If you take the S.A.T. exam four times and you receive the same score all four
times, we may conclude that the test is but not necessarily .
valid; reliable
reliable; accurate
reliable; valid
valid; important
5. In order for an experiment to be considered a TRUE EXPERIMENT there must
be both random assignment of subjects/participants to groups, and .
equal numbers of males and females
preliminary testing to see if participants are eligible
approval of an internal review board
manipulation of an Independent Variable
6. Marsha, Jan, and Cindy are participants in a psychological study of the
effectiveness of three different psychedelic drugs. Each participant is assigned to
one and only one condition, receiving only one type of drug, in order to examine
the effects of each drug from one group to the next. This is a design.
between-subjects
within-subjects (repeated measures)
I have no clue
experimental
7. A correlation coefficient of +0.92 means that as one variable increases, the
other variable:
increases
decreases
is not affected
is impossible to predict
8. If a participant in an experiment believed that she was expected to act in a
certain way, and therefore did not act completely honestly or naturally, her
behavior would fit the definition of:
experimenter bias
control
demand characteristics
subjective behavior
9. After a Psychologist has stated the specific problem to be studied in an
experiment, he/she must then develop a(n):
theory
conclusion
hypothesis
summary of the data
10. Which of the following would allow me to have the MOST control over
environmental variables when conducting a research study?
true experimental design
quasi-experimental design
survey
case study
11. What identifies psychology as a scientific discipline?
its professional status
methods used in studying its subject matter
its subject matter
amount of education needed to be a psychiatrist
12. Hypothesis refers to :
the outcome of an experiment
a conclusion drawn from an experiment
a form of bias in which the subject tries to outguess the experimenter
a tentative statement about the relationship
13. Statistics are used by researchers to:
analyze the empirical data collected in a study
make their findings sound better
operationally define their variables
ensure the study comes out the way it was intended
14. What is the final step of a scientific investigation?
analyze data
collect data
report the findings
determine whether the hypothesis was supported
15. What is the variable called, in an experiment, that is manipulated by the
researcher?
stimulus
control
dependent
independent
16. What is the purpose of a control group?
make the experiment easier to analyze
show the value of the dependent variable when the independent variable is not being
manipulated
to be able to better evaluate the effect of the independent variable
to control all variables
17. When does random assignment occur?
when subjects have an equal chance to be assigned to any condition and/or
group in a study
when a subject can choose its group and study
none of the above
all of the above
18. Beth goes to a fast food restaurant and records how many people order
hamburgers versus cheeseburgers and whether or not they order a coke versus a
diet coke. Beth is involved in a :
case study
naturalistic observation
survey
experiment
19. What technique would be useful in determining why a specific toddler is afraid
to go to bed?
descriptive study
case study
a placebo
experiment
20. What is one way that distortions can be produced in self report data?
lying
social desirability bias
faulty memory
all of the above
. Which of the following describes single-blind experiments?
(A) They are experiments in which the subjects don’t know whether they are
receiving a real or fake drug or treatment
(B) They help reduce placebo effects
(C) They help reduce bias in research
(D) All of the above
2. What does it mean if two variables have a positive correlation?
(A) As one variable increases, so does the other
(B) As one variable increases, the other decreases
(C) The correlation between the two variables is 0
(D) The correlation between the two variables is greater than 1.0
3. In what type of study does a researcher study an individual subject in depth?
(A) Naturalistic observation
(B) Laboratory observation
(C) Case study
(D) Survey
4. How can we determine if a test has good validity?
(A) It produces the same result when it is given at different times to the same
group of people
(B) It produces the same result no matter which version of the test is used
(C) It measures what it is supposed to measure
(D) All of the questions on it can be answered accurately by the subject
5. What is the variable called that a researcher manipulates in an experiment?
(A) Dependent variable
(B) Independent variable
(C) Extraneous variable
(D) None of the above
6. What is the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a data
distribution called?
(A) Mode
(B) Standard deviation
(C) Range
(D) Median
7. The social desirability bias can affect which of the following?
(A) The validity of a test
(B) The reliability of a test
(C) Self-report data
(D) None of the above
8. Which of the following is a research method that allows a researcher to get
information about a large number of subjects relatively inexpensively andeasily?
(A) Naturalistic observation
(B) Case study
(C) Laboratory observation
(D) Survey
9. What is a common way of controlling extraneous variables in an experiment?
(A) Random assignment
(B) Double-blind procedure
(C) Single-blind procedure
(D) Using animal subjects
10. When doing research involving deception with human subjects, researchers have an
obligation to do which of the following?
(A) Tell subjects the truth about the study’s purpose and methods after the study is
completed
(B) Prevent mental and physical harm to subjects
(C) Let subjects withdraw from the study at any time if they don’t want to keep
participating
(D) All of the above
Practice Quiz
Chapter 5
Measurement Concepts
1. A reliable measure has more measurement error than an unreliable measure.
True
False
2. An indicator of reliability based on the correlations of each item in a measure
with every other item is called:
Test-retest reliability
Cronbach's alpha
Split-half reliability
3. A measure is reactive if it changes the behavior being measured.
True
False
4. A researcher developed a measure of shyness and is now asking whether this
measure does in fact measure a person's true state of shyness. This is a
question of:
reactivity.
construct validity.
reliability.
5. Scores on a final exam are related to student grade point average, the amount
of time spent studying for the exam, and class attendance. What type of validity
is demonstrated in this case?
convergent validity.
discriminant validity.
criterion validity.
6. Nominal scales of measurement have no quantitative properties.
True
False
7. Which of the following variables does NOT have ratio scale properties?
job satisfaction rating
reaction time to respond when a stimulus is presented
distance (in inches) that two people stand from each other when
conversing
8. My measure allows me to successfully predict future behavioral outcomes. My
measure has:
Criterion validity
Face validity
9. Unobtrusive measures reduce the problem of reactivity.
True
False
10. Whenever you divide people into groups, you probably using a nominal scale
level of measurement.
True
False
4. The statement, "Interviewers rate job applicants more favorably when they are
wearing a pleasant scent than when they have no scent" is an example of:
description of behavior.
prediction of behavior.
explanation of behavior.
5. The statement, "A pleasant scent increases favorability of ratings because the
scent creates a positive emotional state in the interviewer" is an example of:
description of behavior.
prediction of behavior.
explanation of behavior.
3. Which of the following would result in finding more articles when using
PsycINFO?.
happiness AND marital satisfaction
happiness OR marital satisfaction
4. You found an important article published in 1990. What resource wouldyou
use to find articles that have cited your article since then?
Psychological Abstracts
PsycINFO
Social Science Citation Index
5. Which of the following is NOT true of theories?
Explain currently known facts.
Rarely change once formulated.
Generate new knowledge.
7. You are reading a paragraph in a journal article; the topic of the paragraph is
the implications of the results for future research. Which section of the article are
you reading?
Introduction
Results
Discussion
4. A researcher records the tips left at a restaurant. The amount of the tip is
related to size of the check, and the number and gender composition of people in
the party. According to regulations, this research would be classified as:
No risk
Minimal risk
Greater than minimal risk
5. Which is not a reason for a debriefing session?
Required by Health and Human Services regulations.
Deal with issues of stress or deception.
Education about psychological research.
4. Which is NOT a problem when the nonexperimental method is used to study
relationships between variables?
Direction of cause and effect
Behavior is only measured
A "third" variable may be responsible for the relationship.
5. Which of the following relationships would most likely be studied with the
nonexperimental method?
The effect of parental use of alcohol on aggressive behavior of
children.
The effect of distraction while studying on test performance.
The effect of defendant attractiveness on juror decisions.
. In an experiment, some participants took a standard printed exam; others took
the exam using a computer administration procedure. Scores obtained with the
two exam procedures were compared. The independent variable was
and the dependent variable was .
exam type; exam score.
exam score, exam type.
participant gender, exam procedure
Which of the following is used to make sure that the participants in each
condition of an experiment are equivalent?
Experimental control
Randomization
2. A researcher devised a coding system to analyze the messages on an Internet
bulletin board discussion of the controversy concerning Elian Gonzalez, the
Cuban boy who was rescued after a boat accident in the ocean between
Cuba
and the United States. This study used:
content analysis.
naturalistic observation.
systematic observation.
4. A researcher videotaped people while viewing political debates. Raters viewed
segments of the tapes and recorded whether the people were smiling. This study
used:
systematic observation.
naturalistic observation.
content analysis.
5. A researcher tries to explain why a particular observation does not fit with a
theory that is used to explain other observations. This is called:
inter-rater reliability.
negative case analysis.
internal validity.
7. A researcher accessed information on the Internet from a series of surveys of
women that was conducted during the 1970s and 1980s. The data were
analyzed to examine changes in attitudes and behaviors over time. Which of the
following methods was used?
systematic observation
case study
archival research
8. When two or more judges make ratings of observed behaviors, it is important
to examine:
inter-rater reliability.
test-retest reliability.
9. A psychologist conducts a study that uses data collected from many cultures in
the world. The researcher probably used:
Human Relations Area Files
PsycINFO
2. You wish to make a precise estimate about the characteristics of a population
of individuals. You should use:
quota sampling.
probability sampling.
accidental sampling.
10. A researcher studies memory by talking to groups of people in their 50s, 60s,
and 70s about memory problems that they have experienced and worried about.
This study has collected:
quantitative data.
qualitative data.
. The number of people who complete a survey in relation to the number of
people contacted to participate is called the:
response set.
response rate.
response bias.
6. The question, "Do you think that television should have less violence and
fewer shows about sex" is considered:
double-barreled.
loaded.
open-ended.
7. Which type of questions should be first in a questionnaire or interview?
questions about demographics such as age and gender
questions about attitudes and behaviors
8. Which type of question is most likely to be used when the researcher is just
starting to explore what people think about a particular topic?
closed-ended
open-ended
10. Which is most likely to yield qualitative data?
Mail survey
Focus group
Telephone interview
2. A researcher studied the effect of defendant physical attractiveness on juror
decisions. The attractive person was 20 years old, and the unattractive person
was a 45-year old. The problem here is that:
age is confounded with attractiveness.
it is very difficult to operationally define physical attractiveness.
attractiveness is not related to perceptions of guilt.
4. The same people participate in each condition of an experiment. What type of
design is this?
repeated measures (within-subjects)
independent groups (between-subjects)
matched pairs
6. Complete counterbalancing means that:
there were no practice effects
all possible orders of the IV were used
all Latin squares were constructed
9. All things being equal, which design is more likely to result in a statistically
significant effect?
Independent groups
Repeated measures
10. You identified the 15 employees in a large organization who were absent
from work the most days during the previous month. You require these
employees to attend a one-day program on time and stress management in an
attempt to reduce absenteeism. In the following month, all of the employees
improved their attendance. The improvement could be caused by the program or
it might be due to:
statistical regression.
mortality
instrument decay
1. In an experiment, words with either feminine or masculine connotation were
presented on a computer screen. The participant pressed one key when they
perceived a masculine word and another key when it was perceived as feminine.
Reaction time was the dependent variable. The experimenter used a:
staged manipulation
straightforward manipulation
2. The dependent variable was score on a measure of comprehension of
material. Virtually everyone in all conditions of the experiment answered all
questions correctly. Researchers refer to this situation as a:
floor effect.
ceiling effect.
similarity effect.
4. You are concerned that participants in your study may be figuring out exactly
what you are studying. You are worried about:
demand characteristics.
experimenter expectancies.
placebo effects.
6. The session that the experimenter holds with participants following an
experiment is called:
deception.
informed consent.
debriefing
7. The galvanic skin response (GSR) is a measure of:
anxiety.
muscle tension.
8. A good way to "debug" a study is to run a:
placebo group.
pilot study.
9. An experiment was conducted entirely on the Internet. This procedure
probably eliminated the problem of:
demand characteristics.
experimenter expectancies.
informed consent.
10. A researcher is designing a study on the effect of defendant attractiveness on
juror decisions. To investigate whether participants perceive the two defendants
as different in attractiveness, the researcher should use a:
sensitive dependent measure.
manipulation check.
strong manipulation.
7. A documentary film director made a series of films about the lives of a set of
children when they were 7, 14, 21, 28, and 35 years of age, i.e, the films 7-Up
and 14-Up.. What type of "research design" is this?
cross-sectional
longitudinal
sequential
8. When Donald Campbell compared fatalities in Connecticut and nearby states
before and after a police speeding crackdown, the design was
used.
interrupted time series
control series
longitudinal
10. After comparing the effects of jail and a drug treatment program on persons
convicted of drug-related offenses, a researcher analyzed the societal costs of
each. The researcher has conducted:
outcome evaluation
needs assessment
economic efficiency assessment
1. You want to know if males and females differ in preferences for dogs and cats
as pets. You ask males and females to indicate whether they prefer dogs, cats,
or neither dogs nor cats. When you describe your results, you will compare:
means.
percentages.
medians.
2. You want to know if males and females differ in the length of recommended
sentence for someone found guilty of driving under the influence of alcohol. You
ask males and females to indicate the number of weeks of jail time the convicted
person should receive. When you describe your results, you will compare:
means
percentages
medians
4. You conducted a survey of students in your school. You report that half the
students work 25 hours per week or less. The statistic you used is the
mean.
median.
mode
5. Couples who share more similar attitudes indicate that they are more satisfied
with their relationship. This reflects a correlation.
positive
negative
7. A researcher assessed the following variables in a sample of teenage males:
aggressive behavior, anger, loneliness, and perceived social support from family
and friends. In addition to examining the correlations among these variables, the
researcher tested a proposed model of how these variable are related to one
another. The researcher is using a:
partial correlation analysis.
structural equation model.
multiple regression analysis.
10. A multiple correlation is a correlation between one variable and
another variable that is measured on a ratio scale.
a combined set of variables.
a manipulated variable
2. The ability to infer that that the independent variable caused the effect on the
dependent variable is called:
internal validity
external validity
criterion validity
3. When you discuss the extent to which your results would apply to other people
or settings, you are concerned with:
internal validity
external validity
criterion validity
5. A replication in which the original procedures are duplicated is called a(n)
.
exact replication
conceptual replication
systematic replication.
. A study on fear of medical procedures was conducted in a room on campus that
had been decorated as a doctor's office has:
experimental realism
mundane realism
replicability
8. The participants in the study became very involved in a computer simulation.
0 Comments
This study has:
experimental realism
mundane realism
replicability
10. A study conducted outside the confines of a standard laboratory/classroom is
called a:
field experiment
mundane experiment
meta-analysis
STA630 Research Methods Solved MCQs Shared by Power
Girls
STA630 1st
Quiz
Shared by Power Girls
Who join our conference and help us in solving these quizzes.
Helpful Links:
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9865/2525549.cw/index.htm
l
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/
http://www.uk.sagepub.com/breakwell/mcq.htm
Question # 1
The following journal article would be an example of research; "The benefits of
florescent lighting on production in a factory setting."
Select correct option:
Applied
Interview
Basic
Stupid
Question # 2
Which of the following is a concept?Select correct option:
Leadership.
Total Quality Management.
Human Resource Management.
All of the given options
Question # 3
Question # 4
The scientific method is preferred over other ways of knowing because it is more;
Select correct option:
Reliable
Systematic
Accurate
All of the given options
Question # 5
Quantitative researcher's preoccupation with generalization is an attempt to:
Select correct option:
Develop the law like findings of the natural sciences.
Boost their chances of publication.
Enhance the internal validity of their research.
Demonstrate the complex techniques of statistical analysis.
Question # 6
What is the basis of the Scientific Method?
Select correct option:
To test hypotheses in conditions that are condusive to its success.
To formulate a research problem and disprove the hypothesis.
To formulate a research problem, test the hypothesis in carefully controlled conditions that challenge the
hypothesis.
To test hypotheses and if they are disproved, they should be abandoned completely.
Reference & Explanation:
http://www.experiment-resources.com/definition-of-the-scientific-method.html
The principles and empirical processes of discovery and demonstration considered characteristic
of or necessary for scientific investigation, generally involving the observation of phenomena, the
formulation of a hypothesis concerning the phenomena, experimentation to demonstrate the truth
or falseness of the hypothesis, and a conclusion that validates or modifies the hypothesis.
Question # 7
Which of the following is not a concept?
Leadership
Total Quality Management
Human Resource Management
IQ
Explanation:
Concepts are the building blocks of theory, each of which represents a label given to a common element
of the social world. IQ is a measure of the concept of intelligence, it is not a concept in itself.
Question # 8
Which of the following is the best hypothesis statement to address the research question,
"What impact will the new advertising campaign have on use of Brand B?"
The new advertising campaign will impact Brand B usage.
The new advertising campaign will increase Brand B trial.
The new advertising campaign will cause increased Brand B usage at the expense of Brand C.
The new advertising campaign will increase Brand B's market penetration.
Question # 9
Which one of the following is not an assumption of science?
There are reoccurring patterns in the world.
Events happen because of preceding causes.
We can discover solutions to problems of interest.
Theoretical explanations must agree with common sense.
Question # 10
A review that only demonstrates familiarity with an area is rarely published but it often is part of
an educational program is which type of review?
Integrative reviews
Theoretical reviews
Self-study reviews
Historical reviews
Reference & Explanation:Page # 26, Lecture # 08
Self-study reviews increase the reader’s confidence. A review that only demonstrates familiarity with an
area is rarely published but it often is part of an educational program. In addition to giving others
confidence in a reviewer’s command of field, it has the side benefit of building the reviewer’s self
confidence.
Question # 11
A literature review requires;
planning
clear writing
good writing
All of the given option
Reference & Explanation:
Page # 29, Lecture # 9
A literature review requires planning and good, clear writing, which requires lot of rewriting. Keep your
purposes in mind when you write, and communicate clearly and effectively.
Question # 12
The facts that should be collected to measure a variable, depend upon the
Select correct option:
Conceptual understanding
Dictionary meaning
Operational definition
All of the above
Question # 13
Which of the following is the BEST hypothesis?
Students taking formative quizzes will perform better on chapter exams than students not taking these
quizzes.
Taller students will have higher test scores than shorter students.
Students taught in a cooperative group setting should do better than students in a traditional class.
Students using laptops will do well.
Explanation:
The second alternative meets the four criteria; all other alternatives do not.
Question # 14What is an hypothesis?
Select correct option:
A prediction of a relationship between certain variables.
An experiment that tests certain predictions.
An independent variable.
A dependent variable.
Reference:
http://www.uk.sagepub.com/breakwell/downloads/mcq/mcq_04/mcq_04.htm
Question # 15
An operational definition is:
One that bears no relation to the underlying concept.
An abstract, theoretical definition of a concept.
A definition of a concept in terms of specific, empirical measures.
One that refers to opera singers and their work.
Reference & Explanation:
Page # 18, Lecture # 5
Operational definition is also called a working definition stated in terms of specific testing or measurement
criteria. The concepts must have empirical referents (i.e. we must be able to count, measure, or in some
other way gather thee information through our senses).
.
Question # 17
If a researcher is studying the effect of using laptops in his classroom to ascertain their
merit and worth, he is likely conducting which type of research?
Select correct option:
Basic
Applied
Evaluation
Experimental
Question # 18
In the statement 'an examination of the effects of discretionary behaviour on employee
performance' employee performance is the:
Select correct option:
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Extraneous variable
Causal variable
Explanation:
The dependent variable is the variable that we are looking to explain, hence in this case it is
employee performance. Discretionary behaviour is the independent variable which is to be
manipulated so as to assess its causal relationship with employee behaviour.
Question # 19
The most difficult sources to locate are;
Select correct option:
Dissertations
Policy Reports and Presented Papers
Government Documents
Scholarly Books Reference & Explanation:
Page # 28, Lecture # 9
Policy Reports and Presented Papers. The most difficult sources to locate are policy reports
and
presented papers. They are listed in some bibliographies of published studies; some
are listed in the
abstracts or indexes.
Question # 20
A concept is a generalized idea about---- .
Select correct option:
A class of objects
Attributes
Occurrences
All of the given options
Reference & Explanation:
Page # 16, Lecture # 5
A concept is a generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that
has been given a name. In other words a concept is an idea expressed as a symbol or in words.
Question # 21
What is the reason for consulting handbooks, yearbooks, encyclopedias, or reviews in the
initial stages of identifying a research topic?
Select correct option:
They are readily available.
They provide an overview of the issues related to a topic.
They are primary sources. They avoid reporting statistical data so one can interpret the results more
easily.
Explanation:
The sources mentioned in this question are all secondary sources, and secondary sources provide
overviews of the topics being investigated.
Question # 22
What is opposite of a variable?
Select correct option:
A constant
An extraneous variable
A dependent variable
A data set
Question # 23
Qualitative and Quantitative Research are the classifications of research on the basis of
Select correct option:
Use of the research
Time dimension
Techniques used
Purpose of the research
Reference & explanation:
Page # 46, lecture # 15
One difference between the two styles involves timing.
Question # 24
The organization of concepts in sequence from the most concrete and individual to the
most general indicates is:
Select correct option:
One that bears no relation to the underlying concept.
An abstract, theoretical definition of a concept.The degree of abstraction
An operational definition
Reference & Explanation:
Page # 16, Lecture # 05
The organization of concepts in sequence from the most concrete and individual to the most
general indicates the degree of abstraction.
Question # 25
The most critical areas of an article to read is;
Select correct option:
Results section
Introduction
Abstract
Limitations
Question # 26
meanings attached to a concept create problems of measurements.
Select correct option:
Unambiguous
Vague
Clear
Dictionary
Reference & Explanation:
Page # 17, Lecture # 05
Vague meanings attached to a concept create problems of measurement.
Question # 27
Rationalism is the application of:
Select correct option:
Research solution
Logic and arguments
Reasoning
Previous findingsReference & Explanation:
http://books.google.com/books?id=875TTxildJ0C&pg=PA232&lpg=PA232&dq=
%22Rationalism+is+the+application+of
%22&source=bl&ots=W9vyQpV_ie&sig=ionJi1mPwBa-XYwE
iKjwoKtqlI&hl=en&ei=cMTZS6TLCtOxrAfD5q2jDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=2&ved=0CA8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22Rationalism%20is%20the%20application
%20of%22&f=false
Question # 28
Why do you need to review the existing literature?
Select correct option:
To give your dissertation a proper academic appearance, with lots of references
Because without it, you could never reach the required word-count
To find out what is already known about your area of interest
To help in your general studying
Question # 29
Question # 30
An operational definition is:
Select correct option:
One that bears no relation to the underlying concept.
An abstract, theoretical definition of a concept.
A definition of a concept in terms of specific, empirical measures.
One that refers to opera singers and their work.
Question # 31
Which one of the following creates problems of measurements of a concept?
Select correct option:
Unambiguous meanings
Vague meanings
Clear meanings
Dictionary meanings
Reference & Explanation:
Page # 17, Lecture # 05
Vague meanings attached to a concept create problems of measurement.
Question # 32
Which of the following is a discrete variable?
Select correct option:
Age
Nationality
Test score
Income
Explanation:
A discrete variable is one that cannot take on all values within the limits of the variable. For
example, responses to a five-point rating scale can only take on the values 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. The
variable cannot have the value 1.7. A variable such as a person's height can take on any value.
Variables that can take on any value and therefore are not discrete are called continuous.
Question # 33
Which of the following is a discrete variable?
Select correct option:
height
age
miles per gallon
number of children
Explanation:
A discrete variable is one that cannot take on all values within the limits of the variable. For
example, responses to a five-point rating scale can only take on the values 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. The
variable cannot have the value 1.7. A variable such as a person's height can take on any value.
Variables that can take on any value and therefore are not discrete are called continuous.
Question # 34According to Empiricism, which of the following is the ultimate source of all our concepts
and knowledge?
Select correct option:
Perceptions
Theory
Sensory experience
Logics and arguments
Reference & Explanation:
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/
The dispute between rationalism and empiricism concerns the extent to which we are dependent
upon sense experience in our effort to gain knowledge. Rationalists claim that there are
significant ways in which our concepts and knowledge are gained independently of sense
experience. Empiricists claim that sense experience is the ultimate source of all our concepts and
knowledge.
Question # 35
If a researcher was studying the use of various instructional approaches to the "multiple
intelligences" of his students, he is likely to be conducting which type of research?
Select correct option:
Basic
Applied
Evaluation
Grounded theory
Explanation:
The theory of multiple intelligences is fairly well established, and this researcher is trying to
understand how to use this theory in the classroom. In addition, there is no assessment of merit or
worth to suggest this could be evaluation research, nor is there any sense that the researcher is
conducting the research to solve a local, isolated problem.
Question # 36
Under which of the following research method is not applicable?
Select correct option:
Health care
Business
Government offices
Imaginary worlds
(MH,vuZs)
Question # 37
Which of the following statements is false?
Select correct option:
Discrete variables allow measurement of an infinite number of fractions of units of measurement.
Discrete variables can only have whole number values.
Continuous numbers can only have whole number values.
Continuous measures do not allow for scores that fall between two number values.
Reference & Explanation:
http://www.uk.sagepub.com/breakwell/downloads/mcq/mcq_03/mcq_03.htm
Page # 19, Lecture 06
Any variable that has a limited number of distinct values and which cannot be divided into
fractions, is a disiable. Such a variable is also called as categorical variable or classificatory
variable, or discrete variable. Some variables have only two values, reflecting the presence or
absence of a property: employed-unemployed or male-female have two values.These variables
are referred to as dichotomous. There are others that can take added categories such as the
demographic variables of race, religion. All such variables that produce data that fit into categories
are said to be discrete/categorical/classificatory, since only certain values are possible.
An automotive variable, for example, where “Chevrolet” is assigned a 5 and “Honda” is assigned
a 6, provides no option for a 5.5 (i.e. the values cannot be divided into fractions).
Question # 38
To explain, predict, and/or control phenomena are the goal of----------------------
Select correct option:
Tradition
Inductive logic
Deductive logic
The scientific method
Question # 39
Which of the following is most beneficial to read in an article?
Select correct option:
MethodsIntroduction
Figures
References
Question # 40
Which of the following is not a function of clearly identified research questions?
0 Comments
Select correct option:
They guide your literature search.
They keep you focused throughout the data collection period.
They make the scope of your research as wide as possible.
They are linked together to help you construct a coherent argument.
Reference & Explanation:
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch03/?view=Standard
It is important to formulate some clear research questions from the outset of your project, because
completely open-ended research can lead to the collection of too much data and a lack of focus
for the analysis. If you decide on some fairly specific research questions before designing your
project, it will help to guide your literature search, data collection and analysis, as well as form a
coherent argument throughout your dissertation
STA630 Research Methods New MCQs from quizzes -
Research Methods (VT)
Which of the following refers to the extent that all information collected in a questionnaire
addresses a research question that will help the decision maker address the current business
problem?
► Accuracy
► Counter balanced
► Relevance
► Frequency
Reference:
Question Relevancy
A questionnaire is relevant to the extent that all information collected addresses a
research question
that will help the decision maker address the current business problem
(zh,vuzs,jan11)
After a researcher has stated the specific problem to be studied in an experiment,
he must then develop a(n):
Theory
Conclusion
Hypothesis
Summary of the data
What type of the interview that is in which questions are already prepared?
Telephonic interview
Personal interview
Unstructured interview
Structured interview
Which method of sampling is least likely to produce bias?
Opportunity Sampling
Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Quasi-random sampling
Which type of question is most likely to be used when the researcher is just
starting to explore what people think about a particular topic?
Closed-ended
Open-ended
Structured
Semi structured
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Which method of sampling is least likely to produce bias?
Opportunity Sampling
Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Quasi-random sampling
Which of the following is false with regard to the benefits of multiple-choice
questions over open-ended questions?
Multiple-choice questions are easier to design
Multiple-choice questions are less costly for coding and data processing
Multiple-choice questions are quicker to administer
The use of multiple-choice questions results in higher cooperation for self-administered
surveys
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Which of the following true about the relationship between theory building and
data collection?
When studies come out as expected, inductive support for the theory is gained.
If an experiment fails, discarding the experiment is an example of affirming the
consequent.
When a hypothesis is not supported, virtually nothing has been learned about the
theory.
A good theory will be inclusive enough to explain every possible research outcome.
What is one way that distortions can be produced in self report data?
Lying
Social desirability bias
Faulty memory
All of the given options
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When you are confident that the experimental manipulation produced the
changes you measured in the dependent variable,your study probably has good
validity.
Construct
Internal
External
Casual
(mh,vuzs)
The scientific method is preferred over other ways of knowing because it is
more;
Reliable
Systematic
Accurate
All of the given options
In which of the following Tests, we give extra training to the interviewer in case of
big research funded by an organization?
Test Run
Pilot Test
Post Hoc Test
T- Test
If a nominal scale is used, it is permissible to calculate which of the following
statistics?
Mean
Range
Percentile
Mode
A one tailed hypothesis predicts-----------
The future
The lottery result
The frequency of the effect
The direction of the effect
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Which of the following provides insight into the complexity of using interviews?
Potential influence of gender or cultural differences between interviewer and
interviewee
The accuracy of the interviewee's responses
The different semantic meanings of the language being used
Accuracy, influences and language used
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The researcher protects the confidentiality in following ways, Except;
Obtaining signed nondisclosure documents.
Restricting access to data instruments where the respondent is identified.
Disclosure of data subsets.
Restricting access to respondent identification.
Which of the following should not be a consideration in writing a proposal?
Understanding the problem situation
The appearance/form of the proposal
Responding to every element exactly as specified by the client
Knowing as much as possible about the proposal recipients
Under which of the following research method is not applicable?
Health care
Business
Government offices
Imaginary worlds
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Which of the following is a concept?
Leadership.
Total Quality Management.
Human Resource Management.
All of the given options
In which way does a ratio scale measurement differ from an interval
measurement?
It measures larger or smaller scores on some underlying dimension.
It implies the existence of an absolute zero value.
It requires the mutual exclusivity of all cases.
It requires that exhaustiveness is applied to all observations.
If a researcher was studying the use of various instructional approaches to the "multiple
intelligences" of his students, he is likely to be conducting which type of research?
Basic
Applied
Evaluation
Grounded theory
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An operational definition is:
One that bears no relation to the underlying concept.
An abstract, theoretical definition of a concept.
A definition of a concept in terms of specific, empirical measures.
One that refers to opera singers and their work.
In the statement 'an examination of the effects of discretionary behaviour on employee
performance' employee performance is the:
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Extraneous variable
Causal variable
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Quantitative researcher's preoccupation with generalization is an attempt to:
Develop the law like findings of the natural sciences.
Boost their chances of publication.
Enhance the internal validity of their research.
Demonstrate the complex techniques of statistical analysis.
Which one of the following tasks is NOT accomplished by theoretical framework?
Elaborate the relationship among the variables
Explain the logic underlying the relationship between the variables.
Describe the nature, and direction of the relationships among the variables.
Relates the previous studies.
What is required if there is a chance that data could harm the respondents?
Change of results
A signed form detailing the types of limits
Free consent of respondents
All of the given options
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Which of the following is not an example of deception?
A part of the truth is not communicated to the respondent
To observe code of ethics
To leak out information regarding any confidential matter
To create bias between respondents before the survey
Which of the the following is not included in Objects?
Tables
People
Books
Weight
The extent to which we can generalize the results of a study to other participants is
called:
Sampling validity
External validity
Construct validity
Internal validity
If a nominal scale is used, it is permissible to calculate which of the following
statistics?
Mean
Range
Percentile
Mode
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All of the following are true about theories, except;
They organize and summarize existing knowledge about a topic.
They are tentative until the facts prove them true.
They provide possible explanations for the phenomenon under study.
They lead to testable hypotheses through the process of deduction.
(MH,vuZs)
Research questions are crucial because they will:
Guide your decisions about what data to collect and from where.
Help you decide which research area interests you.
Ensure that your findings have external validity.
Prevent you from thinking about research strategies.
What is the basis of the Scientific Method?
To test hypotheses in conditions that are condusive to its success.
To formulate a research problem and disprove the hypothesis.
To formulate a research problem, test the hypothesis in carefully controlled
conditions that challenge the hypothesis.
To test hypotheses and if they are disproved, they should be abandoned completely.
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Procedures determining what two issues are rarely used in quantitative research?
Objectivity and subjectivity
Reliability and validity
Accessibility and replicability
Quality and quantity
Ms. Laiba has decided to use the test at the end of the textbook to measure the
achievement levels of the students in her study. Which of the following BEST describes
the chapter test?
0 Comments
Definition
Construct
Variable
Operationalized variable
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STA630 100% Solved MCQ from Books c
STA630-Solved MCQ’s
www.vuzs.info
1. Endeavors to explain, predict, and/or control phenomena are the goal of
a) tradition.
b) inductive logic.
c) deductive logic.
2. Ms. Casillas has been coordinating the Halloween Festival at her school for the
last several years. She wants to be sure the students and parents enjoy the
festival again this year. On which source is she LEAST likely to rely when making
decisions about what to do?
a) Tradition
b) Personal experience
| d) | Expert opinion |
3. Ms. Turner is thinking about changing her instructional approach to a more
mastery-learning orientation. She is interested in knowing more about this topic
as well as its effectiveness when working with elementary school students. On
which source should she rely for such information?
a) Tradition
b) Research
c) Research
d) the scientific method.
c) Intuition
d) Personal experience
4. The scientific method is preferred over other ways of knowing because it is
more
a) reliable.
b) systematic.
c) accurate.
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5. The application of the scientific method to the study of educational problemsis
called
a) inductive reasoning.
b) deductive reasoning.
d) grounded theor
6. Which of the following statements characterizes educational research?
a) It furthers our understanding of educational issues, questions, or problems.
b) It raises new topics for study.
c) It provides information that can improve teaching and learning.
7. Which of the following steps of the scientific method is exemplified by the
researcher reviewing the literature and focusing on a specific problem that has
yet to be resolved?
a) Identify a topic.
b) Describe the procedures to collect information.
c) Analyze the collected information.
d) State the results of the data analysis.
8. If a researcher (1) identified a topic and a specific educational problem related
to it, (2) carefully described the ways by which data was collected and analyzed,
and (3) wrote a report reflecting on this work and its contribution to what is
known about the topic, her work can BEST be described as
d) All of these.
c) educational research.
d) all of these.
a) educational research.
b) quantitative research.
c) qualitative research.
d) evaluation.
9. Which of the following is a limitation of educational research?
a) Research cannot answer value-based problems.
b) Researchers have ethical and legal responsibilities that can constrain their work.
c) It is difficult to fully describe the depth of participants' perspectives giventhe
complexity of human behavior.
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10. What is the reason for consulting handbooks, yearbooks, encyclopedias, or
reviews in the initial stages of identifying a research topic?
a) They are readily available.
c) They are primary sources.
d) They avoid reporting statistical data so one can interpret the results more easily.
11. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a good research topic?
a) It is ethical.
b) It can be investigated through the collection and analysis of data.
| d) | It is theoretically or practically significant. |
12. Which of the following is NOT a legitimate research problem as stated?
a) What is the relationship between the number of books children read and their reading
scores?
c) What does it mean to be a special needs child "included" in Ms. Pierre's fourth grade
class?
d) What are the major legal principles applied to educational cases decided by the U.S.
Supreme Court?
13. Which of the following is the least appropriate research problem?
b) Should competitive games be banned from elementary schools?
c) It focuses on a philosophical or ethical issue.
b) They provide an overview of the issues related to a topic.
d) All of these.
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a) Does studying Latin improve the standardized vocabulary test scores of seventh
grade students?
b) Does drilling fifth grade students with multiplication facts improve theirstandardized
test scores?
c) What is the relationship between students' math attitudes and math achievement?
Key: 1-d; 2-c; 3-b; 4-d; 5-c; 6-d; 7-a; 8-a; 9-d; 10-b; 11-c; 12-b; 13-d
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STA630 MCQ's solved by vuZs Team Mehreen Humayun
Research Methods –STA630
Lesson 1-25
MCQ’s Solved by vuZs Team
Mehreen Humayun
www.vuzs.info
Ms. Roshi has been coordinating the Annual Festival at her school for the last several
years. She wants to be sure the students and parents enjoy the festival again this year.
On which source is she LEAST likely to rely when making decisions about what to do?
Tradition
Personal experience
Research
Expert opinion
Ref: It is likely that traditions, personal experiences, and expert opinions have served
Ms. Casillas well in the past and will continue to do so in the future. The limitations
associated with these sources of knowledge are not going to jeopardize the success of
the festival. Given this situation, research is far too cumbersome.
“Skepticism” is a norm of science. It is better explained by which of the following statement?
Combining the previous knowledge
Critical reading of the previous researches
Providing the proper references of qouted text
Locating research reports in libraries
Lesson 9
Skepticism is the norm of science. It means that you should not accept what is written
simply on the basis of authority of its having been published. Question what you read,
and evaluate it.
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d) Should students have access to controversial novels in school?
Which of the following provides a solid basis foundation for the theoretical framework?
Survey
Literature Review
Experiment
Referencing
Lesson 8
Helps in developing theoretical framework.
In _ definition, a concept is explained in terms of other concepts.
Operational definition
Working definition
Theoretical definition
None of the given options
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“The extensive use of chocolate causes pimples”. The given hypothesis is a (an):
Select correct option:
Descriptive hypothesis
Explanatory hypothesis
Non-Directional hypothesis
Co-relational hypothesis
Lesson 7
Explanatory (causal) hypotheses: Imply the existence of, or a change in, one variable
causes or leads to a change in the other variable.
Which of following statement is true?
Theory and Research are dichotomous
There is no difference between Theory and Research
None of the given statements is true
Lesson 4
Theory and Research: the Dynamic Duo: Theory and research are interrelated; the
dichotomy between theory and research is an artificial.
What type of the interview that is in which questions are already prepared?
Telephonic interview
Personal interview
Unstructured interview
Structured interview
Theory and Research are interrelated
Ref: Structured interview: Sometimes referred to as a patterned interview, the structured
interview is very straightforward. The interviewer has a standard set of questions that are
asked of all candidates.
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Mr. Haris is interested in studying the shared beliefs and practices of the teachers in a
small rural school. He is likely to use which research design?
Action research
Historical research
Ethnography
Grounded theory
Lesson 38
Ethnography comes from cultural anthropology. Ethno means people or a folk distinct by
their culture and graphs refers to describing something. Thus ethnography means
describing a culture and understanding another way of life from the native point of view.
It is just an understanding the culture of people from their own perspective.
To what extent our results can be accurately generalized to other
participants, situations, and times?
What is ordinal data?
Ordinary data
Well behaved data
Ranked data
Numbers
Ref: Ordinal data are categorical data where there is a logical ordering to the
categories.
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The independent variable is;
The variable manipulated in order to observe its effects
The variable that is measured
The free spirited variable
A confounding variable
Lesson 06
Independent variable:
Presumed cause presumed effect
Stimulus
Predicted from …
Antecedent
Manipulated
Predictor
Preliminary Data Collection may be considered as part of ------------ --.
Descriptive research
Explananory research
Exploratory research
All of the given options
Lesson 12
Preliminary Data Collection: This step may be considered as part of the exploratory
research.
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Cover letter must include the following information, except:
Select correct option:
How was the respondent selected?
Data collecting tools
Motivation for the respondent
Importance of research topic which is going to be conducted
Lesson 21
Cover Letter: The cover letter that accompanies the questionnaire or is printed on the first
page of the questionnaire is an important means of inducing a reader to complete and
return the questionnaire. In the letter tell why the study is important, who is sponsoring
the study, how was the respondent selected, assuring the anonymity of the respondent
could help in establishing rapport and motivating the respondent to respond.
Basic and Applied Research are the classifications of research on the basis of:
Use of the research
Time dimension
Techniques used
Purpose of the research
Lesson 3
Basic Research: Basic research advances fundamental knowledge about the human
world. It focuses on refuting or supporting theories that explain how this world operates,
what makes things happen, why social relations are a certain way, and why society
changes.
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Applied Research: Applied researchers try to solve specific policy problems or help
practitioners accomplish tasks.
What is a cross-sectional research?
A study of one particular section of society
A comparison of two or more variables over a long period of time
The collection of data from more than one case at one moment in time
One that is conducted when environment is uncertain
Lesson 3
Cross-Sectional Research: In cross-sectional research, researchers observe at one
point in time.
Before a researcher specified the relationship among variables, he must have a (an):
Inventory of variables
Inventory of propositions
Arrangement of propositions
Schematic diagram
According to scientific method, which of the following is Not an empirical reality?
Emotions
God’s reward for good deeds
Satisfaction
None of the given options
Ref: The empirical reality is the reality that can be deduced from repeatable
observations of the senses.
Which of the following best describes qualitative data coding?
Numerically representing the concepts identified by the participants
Identify data segments that contain general episodes
Adding all of the scores together and describing them statistically
Dividing data in parts that represent single thoughts
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“High productivity is positively associated with Job commitment”. The given hypothesis is a (an):
Descriptive hypothesis
Explanatory hypothesis
Non-Directional hypothesis
Co-relational hypothesis
Lesson 7
Correlational hypotheses: State merely that the variables occur together in some specified manner without
implying that one causes the other. Such weak claims are often made when we believe that there are more
basic causal forces that affect both variables. For example:
Level of job commitment of the officers is positively associated with their level of efficiency.
The logic of purposive sampling is:
That a random sample can generalize to a population.
That a few information-rich participants studied in depth yield many insights about a topic.
To include all participants, even though they are not all relevant to the problem.
To use participants because the researcher has access to them.
STA630 100% Solved MCQ from Books B
• • •
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Shared By Fawad
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What is a 'grand theory'?
a) One that was proposed by one of the major theorists in the sociological tradition
b) One that is highly abstract and makes broad generalizations about the social world
c) An intermediate level explanation of observed regularities
d) A particularly satisfactory theory that makes the researcher feel happy
What does an empiricist believe?
a) We should not apply natural science methods to social science research
b) It is the sociologist's aim to understand the meaning of social action
c) Knowledge, in the form of 'facts', should be gained through sensory experience
d) Research conducted within the British empire was biased and unreliable
| STA630 100% Solved MCQ from Books B |
| Page 2 |
| All Pages |
An inductive theory is one that:
a) Involves testing an explicitly defined hypothesis
b) Does not allow for findings to feed back into the stock of knowledge
c) Uses quantitative methods whenever possible
d) Allows theory to emerge out of the data
What is the epistemological position held by a positivist?
a) There is no substitute for an in-depth, hermeneutic understanding of society
b) Scientific research should be based on value-free, empirical observations
c) Events and discourses in the social world prevent us from having direct knowledge of the natural order
d) It is important to remain optimistic about our research, even when things go wrong
The interpretivist view of the social sciences is that:
a) Their subject matter is fundamentally different to that of the natural sciences
b) We should aim to achieve the interpretive understanding of social action
c) It is important to study the way people make sense of their everyday worlds
d) All of the above
Which of the following is an ontological question?
a) Should I use questionnaires or interviews in my project?
b) What can (and should) be considered acceptable forms of knowledge?
c) How long is it since I last visited the dentist?
d) Do social entities have an objective reality, external to social actors?
The constructionist ontological position suggests that:
a) Social phenomena and their meanings are constantly being accomplished by social actors
b) Individuals are born into a world of rules and structures that they cannot change
c) Building and construction work presents an ideal opportunity to exercise the sociological imagination
d) Social facts and objects have an external reality, independently of the people who perceive them
The qualitative research strategy places a value on:
a) Using numbers, measurements and statistical techniques
b) Generating theories through inductive research about social meanings
c) Conducting research that is of a very high quality
d) All of the above
Which of the following is an example of value-free research?
a) Conscious partiality
b) Sympathy for the underdog
c) Unstructured interviewing
d) None of the above
An important practical issue to consider when designing a research project is:
a) Which theoretical perspective you find most interesting
b) Whether or not you have time to retile the bathroom first
c) How much time and money you have to conduct the research
d) Which colour of ring binder to present your work in
Why do you need to review the existing literature?
a) To make sure you have a long list of references
b) Because without it, you could never reach the required word-count
c) To find out what is already known about your area of interest
d) To help in your general studying
To read critically means:
a) Taking an opposing point of view to the ideas and opinions expressed
b) Skimming through the material because most of it is just padding
c) Evaluating what you read in terms of your own research questions
d) Being negative about something before you read it
Which two of the following are legitimate frameworks for setting out a literature review: 1. Constructing inter-textual
coherence, 2. Deconstruction of textual coherence, 3. Problematizing the situation, 4. Resolving discovered
problems?
a) 1 and 2
b) 2 and 3
c) 1 and 3
d) 2 and 4
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A systematic literature review is:
a) One which starts in your own library, then goes to on-line databases and, finally, to the internet
b) A replicable, scientific and transparent process
c) One which gives equal attention to the principal contributors to the area
d) A responsible, professional process of time-management for research
What is meta-analysis?
a) A technique of correcting for the errors in individual studies within a survey of a large number of studies,
to demonstrate the effect of a particular variable
b) A process of secondary-data gathering to assemble all the possibilities for a variable's effects
c) A substitute for original research, which is justified by constraints of time or money
d) A specialized step in a computer software program (SPSS e.g.)
What is meta-ethnography?
a) A technique for reviewing literature based exclusively on ethnographic studies
b) A technique for synthesizing interpretations drawn from a number of separate qualitative studies of the
same phenomena
c) A process used to make generalizations from a range of qualitative studies
d) A process of surveying only that literature contained within a single library
What is a narrative literature review?
a) An historically-based review, starting with the earliest contributions to the field
b) A review based exclusively on stories about companies, in book and case-study form
c) A paraphrase style of reviewing which does not require referencing
d) An initial impression of the topic which you will understand more fully as you conduct your research
When accessing the internet, which of these steps is the most essential?
a) Recording the full URL
b) Noting the access dates
c) Downloading material to be referenced
d) They are all equally important
According to the Harvard referencing convention, which is the correct reference?
a) Bryman, A. (2008, 3e) Social Research Methods, Oxford; Oxford University Press
b) Bryman (2008, second edition), Oxford University Press
c) Bryman, Alan, Social Research Methods (2008: OUP)
d) Bryman, A. Social Research Methods (2008)
Which of the following statements about plagiarism is most accurate?
a) It is so easy to "copy and paste" from the internet that everyone does it nowadays. If a proper reference is given,
where is the harm in that?
b) How can we say for sure where our own ideas come from exactly? If we tried to give a reference for everything we
could never hope to succeed.
c) Any suggestion that we have written what another actually wrote is morally wrong. Anyway, thewhole
point of a literature review is to show what we have read and what we thought about it.
d) Plagiarism is such an awful crime that those found guilty should be obliged to wear a scarlet "P" on their clothing
What is a research design?
a) A way of conducting research that is not grounded in theory
b) The choice between using qualitative or quantitative methods
c) The style in which you present your research findings, e.g. a graph
d) A framework for every stage of the collection and analysis of data
If a study is "reliable", this means that:
a) It was conducted by a reputable researcher who can be trusted
b) The measures devised for concepts are stable on different occasions
c) The findings can be generalized to other social settings
d) The methods are stated clearly enough for the research to be replicated
"Internal validity" refers to:
a) Whether or not there is really a causal relationship between two variables
b) Whether or not the findings are relevant to the participants' everyday lives
c) The degree to which the researcher feels that this was a worthwhile project
d) How accurately the measurements represent underlying concepts
Lincoln & Guba (1985) propose that an alternative criterion for evaluating qualitative research would be:
a) Impressiveness
b) Trustworthiness
c) Joyfulness
d) Messiness
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Naturalism has been defined as:
a) Viewing natural and social objects as belonging to the same realm
b) Being true to the nature of the phenomenon under investigation
c) Minimising the intrusion of artificial methods of data collection into the field
d) All of the above
In an experimental design, the dependent variable is:
a) The one that is not manipulated and in which any changes are observed
b) The one that is manipulated in order to observe any effects on the other
c) A measure of the extent to which personal values affect research
d) An ambiguous concept whose meaning depends on how it is defined
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What is a cross-sectional design?
a) A study of one particular section of society, e.g. the middle classes
b) One that is devised when the researcher is in a bad mood
c) The collection of data from more than one case at one moment in time
d) A comparison of two or more variables over a long period of time
STA630 Solved MCQ from book
1.Dalessha developed a pure model of the "street walker" prostitute to help her study a lare city hetto. She
is usin a(n):
a. Parsimony
b. Ideal Type **
c. Metaphor
d. Jaron
2.Dr. Smith said that social science cannot be value neutral, and a ood study requires puttin results into action
to help peoplechane society. Dr. Smith uses which approach to social science?
a. Positivism
b. Interpretative Social Science
c. Critical Social Science **
d. None of the above
3.Henry Hoson conducted an experiment in which he tested the theory that the intensity of social
interaction amon people increases if they are anxious.What type of study is this most likely to be?
a. Cost Benefit Analysis
b. Explanatory Research **
c. Content Analysis
d. Exploratory Research
4. For the positivist approach to research, a theory looks like:
a. A series of positive statements about the world.
b. A loical system of laws, axioms, and propositions. **
c. A critique which claims that people are bein mislead.
d. A political proram of action and social chane.
5. In exploratory research one does all of the followin, EXCEPT:
a. Become familiar with the basic facts, people and concerns involved.
b. enerate many ideas and develop tentative hypotheses.
c. Determine the feasibility of doin additional research.
d. Test a theory or explanation. **
6. Professor Tun-jen Chen wanted to study the cause for thousands of people from
Hon Kon movin to Vancouver, British Columbia. In order to establish temporal order in his causal arument he
must show which of the followin:
a. There is a correlation between events in Hon Kon and a decision to move.
b. Events occurred in Hon Kon before people moved to Vancouver.
c. A fear for the future of Hon Kon and no other reason caused the move to
Vancouver.
d. All of the above. **
7.Social research methods include all of the followin, except:
a. Surveys
b. Therapy **
c. Experiments
d. Interviews
8. A local human service oranization contacted Mr. Tanaka. The oranization asked him to conduct a study to
identify the difficulties and problems of the elderly in the local community so that the oranization could develop
social prorams to help them. What type of study would this be?
a. Needs assessment *
b. Cost-benefit analysis
c. Plannin, Prorammin and Budetin System
d. Summative Evaluation Research
9. Which best summarizes the main oal of descriptive research?
a. Advance knowlede about an underlyin process or complete a theory.
b. Develop a detailed picture of a situation or issue. **
c. Extend a theory or principle into new areas or issues.
d. Provide evidence to support or refute an explanation.
research method in which subjects respond to a series of items in a
questionnaire:
a. random sample.
b. taret roup.
c. experiment.
d. Survey. **
11. Elizabeth Bethouse conducted a study of amblin establishments operated by
American Indian roups. She examined two establishments operated by different
tribes. Durin the study she spent many hours at each establishment and ained a
detailedknowlede of the tribal leaders, amblin employees and amblin customers.
She also investiated how the establishments wereoranized, their impact on
economic development in the area and how tribal members saw them. She
conducted:
a. a case study **
b. a summative evaluation study
c. a cohort study
d. action research
12. What is the purpose of basic social research or basic socioloy?
a. Solve social problems and find which policies are best.
b. Improve social prorams so they become more effective.
c. Invent new taxonomies and jaron.
d. Create fundamental knowlede about how the social world works. **
13. Which approach says that the purpose of research is to study the creation of
social meanin?
a. Positivism
b. Interpretative Social Science **
c. Critical Social Science
d. None of the above
14. Social research methods are:
a. Ways to ather information to answer a question about the social
world. **
b. Ways to convince people to participate in a study.
c. Ways to manipulate people.
d. Ways to increase the number of friends you have.
15. Which of the followin is not an example of a qualitative research method:
a. Ethnoraphy
b. Time series**
c. Covert Observation
d. Informal or Personal Interviews
16. A friend makes the followin comment: “Persons who rew up with a much older siblin tend to treat the
older siblin as a parentfiure.” She is makin a:
a. Verstehen
b. Theory
c. Relativism
d. eneralization **
17. Joe Foss studied ender differences in attitudes toward mathematics and science amon 45
first rade students. Over the next twelve years he studied the same 45 children when they were in the
fifth, eihth and twelfth rades. This is what type of research?
a. Case study research
b. Cross-sectional research (a study on a cross-sectional sample)
c. Panel study research (a study on a panel sample) **
d. Action-oriented research
18. A research method in which a researcher asks study participants several conversational style questions
and does not provide a set of responses to choose from:
a. case study
b. interview **
c. comparative method
d. quantitative study
19. All of the followin characterize applied socioloical research except which one?
a. Doin research is usually part of a job assinment and
sponsors/supervisors who are not professional researchers willjude/use
the results.
b. Success is based on whether sponsors/supervisors use the results in
decision-makin.
c. The primary concern is with the internal loic and rior of the
research desin, so a researcher attempts to reach the absolute
norms of scientific rior and scholarship. **
d. Research projects are limited by the demands and interests of
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employers or sponsors.
STA630 Research Methods 100% Solved MCQ from Book
Chapter 7
Multiple Choice Questions
1. When each member of a population has an equally likely chance of being selected, this iscalled:
a. A nonrandom sampling method
b. A quota sample
c. A snowball sample
d. An Equal probability selection method
2. Which of the following techniques yields a simple random sample?
a. Choosing volunteers from an introductory psychology class to participate
b. Listing the individuals by ethnic group and choosing a proportion from within
each ethnic group at random.
c. Numbering all the elements of a sampling frame and then using a random number table to pick
cases from the table.
d. Randomly selecting schools, and then sampling everyone within the school.
3. Which of the following is not true about stratified random sampling?
a. It involves a random selection process from identified subgroups
b. Proportions of groups in the sample must always match their population proportions
| c. Disproportional stratified random sampling is especially helpful for getting large | enough |
d. Proportional stratified random sampling yields a representative sample
4. Which of the following statements are true?
a. The larger the sample size, the greater the sampling error
b. The more categories or breakdowns you want to make in your data analysis, the larger the
sample needed
c. The fewer categories or breakdowns you want to make in your data analysis, thelarger
the sample needed
d. As sample size decreases, so does the size of the confidence interval
5. Which of the following formulae is used to determine how many people to include in the original
sampling?
a. Desired sample size/Desired sample size + 1
b. Proportion likely to respond/desired sample size
c. Proportion likely to respond/population size
d. Desired sample size/Proportion likely to respond
6. Which of the following sampling techniques is an equal probability selection method (i.e., EPSEM) in
which every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected?
a. Simple random sampling
b. Systematic sampling
c. Proportional stratified sampling
d. Cluster sampling using the PPS technique
e. All of the above are EPSEM
7. Which of the following is not a form of nonrandom sampling?
a. Snowball sampling
b. Convenience sampling
c. Quota sampling
d. Purposive sampling
e. They are all forms of nonrandom sampling
8. Which of the following will give a more “accurate” representation of the population from which a sample
has been taken?
a. A large sample based on the convenience sampling technique
b. A small sample based on simple random sampling
c. A large sample based on simple random sampling
d. A small cluster sample
9. Sampling in qualitative research is similar to which type of sampling in quantitative research?
a. Simple random sampling
b. Systematic sampling
c. Quota sampling
d. Purposive sampling
10. Which of the following would generally require the largest sample size?
a. Cluster sampling
b. Simple random sampling
c. Systematic sampling
d. Proportional stratified sampling
11. How often does the Census Bureau take a complete population count?
a. Every year
b. Every five years
c. Every ten years
d. Twice a year
2. People who are available, volunteer, or can be easily recruited are used in the sampling method called
.
a. Simple random sampling
b. Cluster sampling
c. Systematic sampling
d. Convenience sampling
13. Which of the following types of sampling involves the researcher determining the appropriate sample
sizes for the groups identified as important, and then taking convenience samples from those groups?
a. Proportional stratified sampling
b. Quota sampling
c. One-stage cluster sampling
d. Two-stage cluster sampling
14. A type of sampling used in qualitative research that involves selecting cases that disconfirm the
researcher's expectations and generalizations is referred to as .
a. Extreme case sampling
b. Typical-case sampling
c. Critical-case sampling
d. Negative-case sampling
15. Using Figure 6.6 (pg. 178), how many participants will you need for a research study with a population
of 120,000?
a. 242
b. 331
c. 377
d. 384
16. In which of the following nonrandom sampling techniques does the researcher ask theresearch
participants to identify other potential research participants?
a. Snowball
b. Convenience
c. Purposive
d. Quota
17. Which of the following is the most efficient random sampling technique discussed in your chapter?
a. Simple random sampling
b. Proportional stratified sampling
c. Cluster random sampling
d. Systematic sampling
18. If we took the 500 people attending a school inNew York City, divided them by gender, and thentook
a random sample of the males and a random sampling of the females, the variable on which we would
divide the population is called the _ _.
a. Independent variable
b. Dependent variable
c. Stratification variable
d. Sampling variable
19. A number calculated with complete population data and quantifies a characteristic of the population is
called which of the following?
a. A datum
b. A statistic
c. A parameter
d. A population
20. The type of sampling in which each member of the population selected for the sample is returned to
the population before the next member is selected is called .
a. Sampling without replacement
b. Sampling with replacement
c. Simple random sampling
d. Systematic sampling
21. Which of the following is not a type of nonrandom sampling?
a. Cluster sampling
b. Convenience sampling
c. Quota sampling
d. Purposive sampling
e. They are all type of nonrandom sampling
22. Which of the following would usually require the smallest sample size because of its efficiency?
a. One stage cluster sampling
b. Simple random sampling
c. Two stage cluster sampling
d. Quota sampling
23. A technique used when selecting clusters of different sizes is called _ _.
a. Cluster sampling
b. One-stage sampling
c. Two-stage sampling
d. Probability proportional to size or PPS
24. The process of drawing a sample from a population is known as _ .
a. Sampling
b. Census
c. Survey research
d. None of the above
25. It is recommended to use the whole population rather than a sample when the population size is of
what size?
a. 500 or less
b. 100 or less
c. 1000 or less
d. you should always use a sample
26. Which of the following is not an example of a nonrandom sampling technique?
a. Purposive
b. Quota
c. Convenience
d. Cluster
27. Which of the following sampling methods is the best way to select a group of people for a study if you
are interested in making statements about the larger population?
a. Convenience sampling
b. Quota sampling
c. Purposive sampling
d. Random sampling
28. _ is a set of elements taken from a larger population according to certain rules.
a. Sample
b. Population
c. Statistic
d. Element
29. Determining the sample interval (represented by k), randomly selecting a number between 1 and k,
and including each kth element in your sample are the steps for which form of sampling?
a. Simple Random Sampling
b. Stratified Random Sampling
c. Systematic Sampling
d. Cluster sampling
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30. The nonrandom sampling type that involves selecting a convenience sample from apopulation with a
specific set of characteristics for your research study is called _ _.
a. Convenience sampling
b. Quota sampling
c. Purposive sampling
d. Snowball sampling
STA630 solved MCQs from new quizzes 9/7/2010
STA630 solved MCQs from new quizzes 9/7/2010
Which of the following is NOT a longitudinal study?
Select correct option:
Trend study
Census study
Panel study
Cohort study
The extent to which we can generalize the results of a study to other participants is called:
Select correct option:
Sampling validity
External validity
Construct validity
Internal validity
Under which of the following research method is not applicable?
Select correct option:
Health care
Business
Government offices
Imaginary worlds
Rationalism is the application of:
Select correct option:
Research solution
Logic and arguments
Reasoning
Previous findings
Which of the following means that all the items in a scale or index fit together or measurea
single construct?
Scale (NOT SURE)
Index
Unidimensionality
Weighting
The purpose of a literature review is to:
Help you find out what is already known about this area.
Identify any inconsistencies or gaps in the literature.
Demonstrate an awareness of the theoretical context in which the current study can be
located.
Find what is already known, identify gaps demonstrate awareness.
If a measure is consistent over multiple occasions, it has:
Inter-rater reliability
Construct validity
Internal validity
Test-retest reliability
Which of the following is not a feature of theoretical framework?
Making an inventory of variables
Specify the direction of relationship
Presenting findings
Making an inventory of propositions
Quantitative data is?
Expressed in numerical form
Concerned with how things are expressed
Big data
Small data
Which of the following concerns is MOST likely to become a problem if Mr. Baber uses
purposive sampling techniques?
Generalizability from the sample to the population.(MH,vuZs)
Statistically equal groups.
Subjects participating in the study.
Selection of participants who are thought to be informative, articulate, and experienced with
the research topic and setting.
Generalizability is the foremost concern when using non-random sampling techniques, of which
purposive sampling is one.
What is a relationship between the literature survey and the theoretical framework?
Provides a solid foundation for developing the latter
Literature survey helps in the identification of the relevant variables
The theoretical framework explains the theory underlying these relations
All of the gven options
Which of the following is NOT characteristic of qualitative data?
Thick, rich descriptions
Unorganized
Voluminous
Concise and succinct
Ref: http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/0,11083,2527149-
content,00.utf8.html
Setting quotas for hard-to-reach respondents is one way to minimize bias.
Select correct option:
Interviewer
Respondent
Instrument
Sampling (not sure)
The key objective of data analysis is to:
Calculate statistics
Understand relationships between variables
Obtain the distribution of responses for each question
Create tables which display the survey results
What is the basis of the Scientific Method?
To test hypotheses in conditions that are condusive to its success.
To formulate a research problem and disprove the hypothesis.
To formulate a research problem, test the hypothesis in carefully controlled
conditions that challenge the hypothesis.
To test hypotheses and if they are disproved, they should be abandoned completely.
The number of people who complete a survey in relation to the number of people contacted
to participate is called the:
Select correct option:
Response set
Response rate
Response bias
Respondents
Which of the following is not something a researcher will have to consider when thinking
about their sample size?
Time and cost.
Non-response.
Length of questionnaire.
Heterogeneity of population.
How is nominal data presented?
In order
In discrete categories
Units of equal distance
Data where there is a true zero
Which of the following is NOT a legitimate research problem as stated?
Select correct option:
What is the relationship between the number of books children read and their reading
scores?
Should competitive games be banned from elementary schools?
What does it mean to be a special needs child "included" in Ms. Amara’s fourth grade class?
What are the major legal principles applied to educational cases decided by the Supreme
Court?
Which of the following is most beneficial to read in an article?
Select correct option:
Methods
Introduction
Figures
References
Which of the following is an example of an issue that would be checked in a pilot testing?
Completion of all questions on a questionnaire
Legible writing
Single responses to all multiple choice questions
Logical answers between questions (i.e., attributes should be rated high if
purchase interest is high)
Which of the following describes the nature of qualitative data interpretation?
Select correct option:
Reflection
Integrative
Explanatory
Reflection, integrity, explanation
What is required if there is a chance that data could harm the respondents?
Select correct option:
Change of results
A signed form detailing the types of limits
Free consent of respondents
All of the given options
Which type of sampling strategy is exemplified by selecting two types of individuals: those
who are extremely happy and those who are extremely sad?
Select correct option:
Snowball
Intensity
Homogeneous
Purposive
If a nominal scale is used, it is permissible to calculate which of the following statistics?
Select correct option:
Mean
Range
Percentile
Mode
The researcher protects the confidentiality in following ways, Except;
Obtaining signed nondisclosure documents.
Restricting access to data instruments where the respondent is identified.
Disclosure of data subsets.
Restricting access to respondent identification.
When accessing the internet, which of these steps is the most essential?
Recording the full URL
Noting the access dates
Downloading material to be referenced
They are all equally important
Rationalism is the application of:
Research solution
Logic and arguments
Reasoning
Previous findings
If an interview is conducted with a respondent who does not meet the qualifications for a
study, what kind of bias has occurred?
Select correct option:
Respondent bias
Position bias
Non-response bias
Instrument bias
What is the reason for consulting handbooks, yearbooks, encyclopedias, or reviews in the
initial stages of identifying a research topic?
They are readily available.
They provide an overview of the issues related to a topic.
They are primary sources.
They avoid reporting statistical data so one can interpret the results more easily.
What does Ordinal scale NOT imply?
Characteristics of nominal scale
Rank the object
Does not provide magnitude of object
Provide rate
Which of the following is the BEST hypothesis?
Students taking formative quizzes will perform better on chapter exams than
students not taking these quizzes.
Taller students will have higher test scores than shorter students.
Students taught in a cooperative group setting should do better than students in a
traditional class.
Students using laptops will do well.
Quantitative social researchers rarely claim to have established causality because:
They are more concerned with publishing the results of their reliability tests.
They do not believe that this is an appropriate goal to be striving for.
They keep forgetting which of the variables they have manipulated.
They tend to use cross-sectional designs, which produce only correlations.
An advantage of computer-assisted telephone interviewing is:
Interviewing time is reduced
Data quality is enhanced
Questionnaires do not have to be coded
There is little opportunity for interviewer bias
In which of the following sampling methods People are available such as volunteer or can be
easily recruited?
Simple random sampling
Cluster sampling
Systematic sampling
Convenience sampling (MH,vuZs)
What type of the interview that is in which questions are already prepared?
Select correct option:
Telephonic interview
Personal interview
Unstructured interview
Structured interview
The facts that should be collected to measure a variable, depend upon the
Select correct option:
Conceptual understanding
Dictionary meaning
Operational definition
All of the above
When you are confident that the experimental manipulation produced the changes you
measured in the dependent variable, your study probably has good validity.
Select correct option:
Construct
Internal
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External
Causal
Which of the following can be referred as a Reputational sampling?
Select correct option:
Purposive Sampling
Quota Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Which of the following is a research method that allows a researcher to get information
about a large number of subjects relatively inexpensively and easily?
Naturalistic observation
Case study
Laboratory observation
Survey
What does it mean if two variables have a positive correlation?
As one variable increases, so does the other
As one variable increases, the other decreases
The correlation between the two variables is 0
The correlation between the two variables is greater than 1.0
Sta630 Research Method solved MCQs from web
STA630 solved MCQs from web
www.vuzs.info
1. The first step in the marketing planning process is to:
a. Select the target market(s)
b. Define the marketing objectives
c. Specify each element of the marketing mix
d. Assess the environmental opportunities and constraints
e. Develop an implementation plan
2. Which of the following is the best hypothesis statement to address the research
question, "What impact will the new advertising campaign have on use of Brand B?"
a. The new advertising campaign will increase Brand B usage.
b. The new advertising campaign will impact Brand B usage.
c. The new advertising campaign will increase Brand B trial.
d. The new advertising campaign will cause increased Brand B usage at the
expense of Brand C.
e. The new advertising campaign will increase Brand B's market penetration.
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3. Which of the following should not be a consideration in writing a proposal?
a. Understanding the purpose behind the request for proposal
b. Understanding the problem situation
c. The appearance/form of the proposal
d. Responding to every element exactly as specified by the client
e. Knowing as much as possible about the proposal recipients
4. A scale only assigns numbers to objects to classify the objects according
to the characteristic of interest.
a. Ratio
b. Ordinal
c. Nominal
d. Interval
e. Dichotomous
5. A telephone company is interested in obtaining customers' reactions to a newservice
package. Which of the following primary research methods would be most effective in
reaching this audience to obtain their feedback?
a. Mall intercept interviews
b. An Internet survey
c. Telephone interviews
d. A mail survey
e. Focus groups
6. When issues to be addressed are personal, sensitive, or subject to strong social
norms, a qualitative research technique generally recommended is:
a. Focus groups
b. Mini-groups
c. Laddering
d. Symbolic analysis
e. Projective research
7. What type of sample involves some form of random selection so that every member
of the sampling frame has an equal, non-zero chance of being included in thesample?
a. Probability sample
b. Census equivalent sample
c. Zero-bias sample
d. All-inclusive sample
e. Non-probability sample
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8. Conditions favoring the use of a sample over a census include a:
a. Small population size
b. Long time frame
c. Small budget
d. High cost of sampling errors
e. Low cost of non-sampling errors
9. Increasing the size of the sample is likely to:
a. Decrease sampling error but increase non-sampling error
b. Increase sampling error but decrease non-sampling error
c. Decrease both sampling error and non-sampling error
d. Increase both sampling error and non-sampling error
e. Increase sampling error but have no impact on non-sampling error
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10. An advantage of computer-assisted telephone interviewing is:
a. Interviewing time is reduced
b. Data quality is enhanced
c. Questionnaires do not have to be coded
d. There is little opportunity for interviewer bias
e. This method tends to achieve high response rates compared to other methods
11. If a company is interested in determining the in-store shelf exposure of their brand
versus competitive brands, the most effective way to obtain this information is via:
a. Scanner data
b. In-store intercepts with consumers observed purchasing a product in the
category
c. Telephone interviews with individuals who made a recent category purchase
d. An audit
e. Diary panel data from individuals making purchases in the category
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12. Which of the following is false with regard to the benefits of multiple-choice
questions over open-ended questions?
a. The use of multiple-choice questions reduces interviewer bias
b. Multiple-choice questions are easier to design
c. Multiple-choice questions are less costly for coding and data processing
d. Multiple-choice questions are quicker to administer
e. The use of multiple-choice questions results in higher cooperation for selfadministered surveys
13. Detailed and unambiguous instructions are particularly important for:
a. Interviewer-administered personal interviews
b. Computer-assisted telephone surveys
c. Mail surveys
d. Computer-assisted personal interviews
e. Internet surveys
14. If an interview is conducted with a respondent who does not meet the qualifications
for a study, what kind of bias has occurred?
a. Position bias
b. Respondent bias
c. Lifestyle bias
d. Non-response bias
e. Instrument bias
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15. Setting quotas for hard-to-reach respondents is one way to minimize bias.
a. Respondent
b. Interviewer
c. Instrument
d. Non-response
e. Sampling
16. Which of the following is an example of an issue that would be checked in a field
edit?
a. Completion of all questions on a questionnaire
b. Legible writing
c. Single responses to all multiple choice questions
d. Logical answers between questions (i.e., attributes should be rated high if
purchase interest is high)
e. The accuracy of a respondent's phone number (if this information is collected)
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17. The telephone rings, you answer, and the caller asks you to respond to a survey.
After a few questions, the caller begins to offer you the opportunity to purchase land at a
local lake for a summer home. This practice is known as and is in
many countries.
a. Frugging, unethical
b. Frugging, illegal
c. Sugging, unethical
d. Sugging, illegal
e. Sugging, ethical
18. Eliminating a respondent's survey due to many questions being left blank isreferred
to as:
a. Pairwise deletion
b. Neutral value deletion
c. Casewise deletion
d. Imputed response deletion
e. Variable deletion
19. To standardize a scale, subtract from and divide by .
a. The standard deviation, the variance, the mean
b. The mean, each score, the standard deviation
c. Each score, the standard deviation, the mean
d. Each score, the mean, the variance
e. The standard deviation, the variance, each score
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20. If a nominal scale is used, it is permissible to calculate which of the following
statistics?
a. Mean
b. Standard deviation
c. Range
d. Percentile
e. Mode
21. Multicollinearity occurs when:
a. There are high intercorrelations among the independent variables
b. The independent variables are mutually exclusive
c. The independent variables are irrelevant
d. There are too many independent variables
e. The dependent variable cannot be predicted by the independent variables
22. The key objective of data analysis is to:
a. Understand relationships between variables
b. Calculate statistics
c. Obtain the distribution of responses for each question
d. Create tables which display the survey results
e. Provide those reading the report with as much detail as possible about the
survey results
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23. Which of the following is the best way to staff a research department?
a. Keep staffing levels low just in case the work slows down; during particularly
busy times the staff can put in more hours.
b. Keep staffing levels high, so that adequate resources are always available for
peak times.
c. Develop a broad range of skill sets in each employee so there is flexibility
in what can be assigned to each researcher in order to balance workloads.
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d. Keep overhead down by exclusively using independent contractors who are paid
only for the work they do on specific assignments.
e. Fill as many positions as possible with part-time rather than full-time staff tohave
the flexibility of increasing or decreasing hours based on workloads.
24. Which of the following is a general rule for research department budgeting?
a. Establish a fixed budget that does not allow for deviations.
b. Obtain client input in the research budgeting process.
c. Try to establish as high a budget as possible in order to have extra dollars
available for unanticipated issues requiring investigation.
d. Allocate fewer resources to projects focused on current information needs, and
greater resources to the investigation of future issues.
e. Consider the budget as simply a starting point for the allocation of resources
since needs change over time and flexibility is important.
25. A recent study of car owners indicated that 10% felt Brand A had the best quality,
9% felt Brand B did, and 6% felt other models did. The remainder had no opinion. The
advertising claim that most car owners who gave an opinion believe that Brand A has
the best quality is an example of which is .
a. Biased research, unethical
b. Effective advertising, ethical
c. Misleading reporting, unethical
d. Incomplete reporting, unethical
e. Accurate reporting, ethical
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STA630 Solved MCQs from Book
Chapter 2
Multiple Choice Questions
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1. Which research paradigm is based on the pragmatic view of reality?
a. quantitative research
b. qualitative research
c. mixed research
d. none of the above
2. Which research paradigm is least concerned about generalizing its findings?
a. quantitative research
b. qualitative research
c. mixed research
d. none of the above
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3. Which of the following best describes quantitative research?
a. the collection of nonnumerical data
b. an attempt to confirm the researcher’s hypotheses
c. research that is exploratory
d. research that attempts to generate a new theory
4. A condition or characteristic that can take on different values or categories is called
.
a. a constant
b. a variable
c. a cause-and-effect relationship
d. a descriptive relationship
5. if one variable causes change in value of another variable is termed as:
a. dependent variable
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6. All of the following are common characteristics of experimental research except:
a. it relies primarily on the collection of numerical data
b. it can produce important knowledge about cause and effect
c. it uses the deductive scientific method
d. it rarely is conducted in a controlled setting or environment
7. Qualitative research is often exploratory and has all of the following characteristics
except:
a. it is typically used when a great deal is already known about the topicof
interest
b. it relies on the collection of nonnumerical data such as words and pictures
c. it is used to generate hypotheses and develop theory about phenomena in the world
d. it uses the inductive scientific method
8. Which type of research provides the strongest evidence about the existence of
cause-and-effect relationships?
a. nonexperimental Research
b. experimental Research
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9. What is the key defining characteristic of experimental research?
a. extraneous variables are never present
b. a positive correlation usually exists
c. a negative correlation usually exists
d. manipulation of the independent variable
10. In , random assignment to groups is never possible and the researcher
cannot manipulate the independent variable.
a. basic research
b. quantitative research
c. experimental research
d. causal-comparative and correlational research
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11. What is the defining characteristic of experimental research?
a. resistance to manipulation
b. manipulation of the independent variable
c. the use of open-ended questions
d. focuses only on local problems
12.. A positive correlation is present when .
a. two variables move in opposite directions.
b. two variables move in the same direction.
c. one variable goes up and one goes down
d. several variables never change.
13. Research in which the researcher uses the qualitative paradigm for one phase and
the quantitative paradigm for another phase is known as .
a. action research
b. basic research
c. quantitative research
d. mixed method research
e. mixed model research
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14. Research in which the researcher uses both qualitative and quantitative research
within a stage or across two of the stages in the research process is known as .
a. action research
b. basic research
c. quantitative research
d. mixed method research
e. mixed model research
15.. Research that is done to understand an event from the past is known as ?
a. experimental research
b. historical research
c. replication
d. archival research
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16. research occurs when the researcher manipulates the independent variable.
a. causal-comparative research
b. experimental research
c. ethnography
d. correlational research
17.. Which of the following includes examples of quantitative variables?
a. age, temperature, income, height
b. grade point average, anxiety level, reading performance
c. gender, religion, ethnic group
d. both a and b
18.. What is the opposite of a variable?
a. a constant
b. an extraneous variable
c. a dependent variable
d. a data set
19. Which of the following is the type of nonexperimental research in which the primary
independent variable of interest is categorical?
a. causal-comparative research
b. experimental research
c. qualitative research
d. mixed research
20. Which of the following can best be described as a categorical variable?
a. age
b. annual income
c. grade point average
d. religion
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21. In research, something that does not "vary" is called a .
a. variable
b. method
c. constant
d. control group
22. When interpreting a correlation coefficient expressing the relationship between two
variables, it is very important to avoid .
a. checking the strength of relationship
b. jumping to the conclusion of causality
c. checking the direction of the relationship
d. expressing a relationship with a correlation coefficient
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23.A researcher studies achievement by children in poorly funded elementary schools.
She develops a model that posits parent involvement as an important variable. She
believes that parent involvement has an impact on children by increasing their
motivation to do school work. Thus, in her model, greater parent involvement leads
to higher student motivation, which in turn creates higher student achievement.
Student motivation is what kind of variable in this study?
a. Manipulated variable
b. Extraneous variable
c. Confounding variable
d. Mediating or intervening variable
24. The strongest evidence for causality comes from which of the following research
methods?
a. Experimental
b. Causal-comparative
c. Correlational
d. Ethnography
25. Which correlation is the strongest?
a. +.10
b. -.95
c. +.90
d. -1.00
26. The correlation between intelligence test scores and grades is:
a. Positive
b. Negative
c. Perfect
d. They are not correlated
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Answers:
1. c
2. b
3. b
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4. b
5. c
6. d
7. a
8. b
9. d
10. d
11. b
12. b
13. d
14. e
15. b
16. b
17. d
18. a
19. a
20. d
21. c
22. b
23. d
24. a
25. d
26. a
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STA630 Solved MCQs for Final Term by Mehreen Humayun
Chapter 9
Multiple Choice Questions for Final Terms
Shared and composed by Mehreen Humayun
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1. Analysis of covariance is:
a. A statistical technique that can be used to help equate groups onspecific
variables
b. A statistical technique that can be used to control sequencing effects
c. A statistical technique that substitutes for random assignment to groups
d. Adjusts scores on the independent variable to control for extraneous variables
2. To determine whether noise affects the ability to solve math problems, a
researcher has one group solve math problems in a quiet room and another
group solve math problems in a noisy room. The group solving problems in the
noisy room completes 15 problems in one hour and the group solving problems
in the quiet room completes 22 problems in one hour. In this experiment, the
independent variable is and the dependent variable is
.
a. The number of problems solves; the difficulty of the problems
b. The number of problems solved; the noise level in the room
c. The noise level in the room; the number of problems solved
d. The noise level in the room; the difficulty of the problems
3. The posttest-only design with nonequivalent groups is likely to controlfor
which of the following threats to internal validity:
a. History
b. Differential selection
c. Additive and interactive effects
d. Differential attrition
4. When all participants receive all treatment conditions, the study is susceptible
to:
a. Order effects
b. Carryover effects
c. Analysis of covariance
d. a and b
5. A researcher is interested in the effects of a preschool program on laterschool
performance. Because she is concerned that socio-economic-status (SES) is a
potential extraneous variable in her study, she picks children to study who are
only from low SES homes. The control technique she used in this study was:
a. Matching
b. Random assignment
c. Holding the extraneous variable constant
d. Statistically controlling the extraneous variable
6. Which of the following terms best describes an interaction effect?
a. The effect of one independent variable (on a DV) depends on the level of
another independent variable
b. Eliminating any differential influence of extraneous variables
c. Sequencing effect that occurs from the order in which the treatment conditions are
administered
d. The effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable
7. Which of the following terms refers to a statistical method that can be used to
statistically equate groups on a pretest or some other variable?
a. Experimental control
b. Differential influence
c. Matching
d. Analysis of covariance
8. Which of the following is not a way to manipulate an independent variable?
a. Presence technique
b. Amount technique
c. Type technique
d. Random technique
9. Which of the following designs permits a comparison of pretest scores to
determine the initial equivalence of groups on the pretest before the treatment
variable is introduced into the research setting.
a. One-group pretest-posttest design
b. Pretest-posttest control group design
c. Posttest-only design with nonequivalent groups
d. Both b and c
10. Counterbalancing is .
a. Usually based on random selection of participants
b. Only used when one pretest variable needs to be controlled
c. Chosen to control for such things as order and carryover effects*
d. All of the above
11. The group that receives the experimental treatment condition is the .
a. Experimental group
b. Control group
c. Participant group
d. Independent group
12. Which of the following control techniques available to the researcher controls
for both known and unknown variables?
a. Building the extraneous variable into the design
b. Matching
c. Random assignment
d. Analysis of covariance
13. The group that does not receive the experimental treatment condition is the
.
a. Experimental group
b. Control group
c. Treatment group
d. Independent group
14. There are a number of ways in which confounding extraneous variablescan
be controlled. Which control technique is considered to be the best?
a. Random assignment
b. Matching
c. Counterbalancing
d. None of the above
15. Which of the following could be used for randomly assigning participants to
groups in an experimental study?
a. Split-half (e.g., first half versus second half of a school directory)
b. Even versus odd numbers
c. Use a list of random numbers or a computer randomization program
d. Let the researcher decide which group will be the best
16. Which term is not a related to counterbalancing?
a. Carryover effect
b. Order effect
c. Sequencing effects
d. Matching
17. A cell is a combination of two or more
a. Research designs
b. Research measurements
c. Dependent variables
d. Independent variables
in a factorial design.
18. Which of the following designs does an excellent job of controlling for rival
hypotheses that threaten the internal validity of an experiment?
a. Posttest-only design with nonequivalent groups
b. Posttest-only control-group design
c. Pretest-posttest control-group design
d. Both b and c are excellent designs
19. Manipulating the independent variable by varying the type on the independent
variable that is presented to the different comparison groups is known as .
a. Amount technique
b. Absence technique
c. Type technique
d. Presence technique
20. Which of the following terms is a sequencing effect that occurs from the order
in which the treatment conditions are administered?
a. Carry-over effect
b. Order effect
c. Sequencing effects
d. None of the above
21. When manipulating the independent variable in an educational experiment,
which of the following describes this method?
a. An independent variable is manipulated using the presence or absence technique
b. The researchers varies the amount of the independent variable that is administered
c. The researcher varies the type of the independent variable
d. All of the above are possible
22. Which method of controlling confounding extraneous variables takes
precedence over all other methods?
a. Matching individual participants
b. Holding extraneous variables
c. Building the extraneous variable into the research design
d. Counterbalancing
e. Randomly assign research participants to the groups
23. In an experimental research study, the primary goal is to isolate and identify
the effect produced by the .
a. Dependent variable
b. Extraneous variable
c. Independent variable
d. Confounding variable
24. This type of design is one where all participants participate in all experimental
treatment conditions.
a. Factorial design
b. Repeated measures design
c. Replicated design
d. Pretest-posttest control-group design
25. A factorial design is one in which .
a. Only one independent variable is studied to determine its effect on the dependent
variable
b. Only two independent variables are simultaneously studied to determine their
independent
and interactive effects on the dependent variable
c. Two or more independent variables are simultaneously studied to determine
their independent and interactive effects on the dependent variable
d. Two dependent variables are studied to determine their interactive effects
26. The design in which one group of research participants is administered a treatment
and is then compared, on the dependent variable, with another group of research
participants who did not receive the experimental treatment is .
a. One-group posttest-only design
b. One-group pretest-posttest design
c. Posttest-only design with nonequivalent groups
d. time series design
27. refers to the influence of a single independent variable.
a. Interaction effect
b. Reactive effect
c. Main effect
d. Proactive effect
28. A sequencing effect that occurs when performance in one treatment condition is
influenced by participation in a prior treatment condition is known as .
a. Counterbalancing effect
b. Carryover effect
c. Treatment effect
d. Order effect
29. Which of the following is possible in a factorial design with two independent
variables?
a. There is only one main effect present
b. There are two main effects present
c. There are two main effects and an interaction effect present
d. All of the above are possible
30. Which of the following is a factorial design where different participants are randomly
assigned to the levels of one independent variable but participants take all levels on
another independent variable?
a. One-group pretest-posttest
b. Pretest-posttest control-group design
c. Factorial design
d. Factorial design based on a mixed model
Chapter 18
Multiple Choice Questions
1. When a citation includes more than authors, only the surname of the first author is cited
followed by et al.
a. 3
b. 4
c. 5
d. 6
2. When referencing other works you have cited within the text of the report you should
a. State the first and last name of the author
b. Use the author, date citation method
c. Use an asterisk and a footnote
d. Insert the complete citation in parenthesis
3. Which of the following abbreviations can be used in a research report?
a. IQ
b. sec. for second
c. yr. for year
d. mo. for month
4. Editorial style specifies that should be used infrequently or sparingly.
a. Italics
b. Abbreviations
c. Headings
d. Both a and b
5. The factor that should determine whether you decide to prepare a research report of you study
for a conference or for publication is
a. Whether the study is free from flaws
b. Whether the study is important enough to justify presentation or publication
c. Whether others would be interested in the work
d. All of the above
6. Which of the following is not true about the use of language in research reports?
a. You should choose accurate and clear words that are free from bias.
b. You should avoid labeling people whenever possible
c. You should avoid using the term “subjects” whenever possible
d. All of the above are true according to the APA Guidelines
7. Regarding disabilities, writers should “avoid equating people with their disabilities” such as in
mentally retarded people.
a. True
b. False
8. You should avoid the use of sexist language in research reports.
a. True
b. False
9. Which is more appropriate when referring to someone with a disability?
a. A stroke victim
b. A person who has had a stroke
10. You should try to use italics frequently when writing a report.
a. True
b. False
11. You should try to use abbreviations sparingly.
a. True
b. False
12. Use words for numbers that begin a sentence and for numbers that are below ten.
a. True
b. False
13. You should double space all material in the manuscript.
a. True
b. False
14. Which of the following is not one of the seven major parts to the research report?
a. Results
b. Abstract
c. Method
d. Footnotes
15. The Introduction section should not be labeled.
a. True
b. False
16. The abstract should be about how many words?
a. 50
b. 75
c. 120
d. 300
17. The Method section should start on a separate page in a manuscript.
a. True
b. False
18. It is in this section that you fully interpret and evaluate your results.
a. Introduction
b. Method
c. Results
d. Discussion
19. Where do you provide a step-by-step account of what the researcher and participants did
during the research study?
a. Introduction
b. Abstract
c. Procedure
d. Design
20. References should be single spaced.
a. True
b. False
21. Qualitative research reports do not need a Method section.
a. True
b. False
22. When writing the qualitative results section, an overriding concern should be to provide
sufficient and convincing evidence to back up your assertions.
a. True
b. False
23. When writing the qualitative results section, you will need to find an appropriate balance
between description and interpretation.
a. True
b. False
24. Diagrams, matrices, tables, and figures should never be used in qualitative research reports.
a. True
b. False
25. Your textbook authors argued that in qualitative research it is important to fit the research
findings back into the relevant research literature even if the study is exploratory.
a. True
b. False
Chapter 6
Multiple Choice Questions
(The answers are provided after the last question.)
1. According to your text, how many points should a rating scale have?
a. Five
b. Four
c. Ten
d. Somewhere from 4 to 11 points
2. What is the problem(s) with this set of response categories to the question “What is your
current age?”
1-5
5-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
a. The categories are not mutually exclusive
b. The categories are not exhaustive
c. Both a and b are problems
d. There is no problem with the above set of response categories
3. You should mix methods in a way that provides complementary strengths and nonoverlapping
weaknesses. This is known as the fundamental principle of mixed research.
a. True
b. False
4. According to the text, questionnaires can address events and characteristics taking place
when?
a. In the past (retrospective questions)
b. In the present (current time questions)
c. In the future (prospective questions)
d. All of the above
5. Which of the following are principles of questionnaire construction?
a. Consider using multiple methods when measuring abstract constructs
b. Use multiple items to measure abstract constructs
c. Avoid double-barreled questions
d. All of the above
e. Only b and c
6. Which of these is not a method of data collection.
a. Questionnaires
b. Interviews
c. Experiments
d. Observations
7. Secondary/existing data may include which of the following?
a. Official documents
b. Personal documents
c. Archived research data
d. All of the above
8. An item that directs participants to different follow-up questions depending on their response
is called a _.
a. Response set
b. Probe
c. Semantic differential
d. Contingency question
9. Which of the following terms best describes data that were originally collected at an earlier
time by a different person for a different purpose?
a. Primary data
b. Secondary data
c. Experimental data
d. Field notes
10. Researchers use both open-ended and closed-ended questions to collect data. Which of the
following statements is true?
a. Open-ended questions directly provide quantitative data based on the researcher’s
predetermined response categories
b. Closed-ended questions provide quantitative data in the participant’s own words
c. Open-ended questions provide qualitative data in the participant’s own words
d. Closed-ended questions directly provide qualitative data in the participants’ own words
11. Open-ended questions provide primarily data.
a. Confirmatory data
b. Qualitative data
c. Predictive data
d. None of the above
12. Which of the following is true concerning observation?
a. It takes less time than self-report approaches
b. It costs less money than self-report approaches
c. It is often not possible to determine exactly why the people behave as they do
d. All of the above
13. Qualitative observation is usually done for exploratory purposes; it is also called
observation.
a. Structured
b. Naturalistic
c. Complete
d. Probed
14. As discussed in chapter 6, when constructing a questionnaire it is important to do each of the
following except _.
a. Use "leading" or "loaded" questions
b. Use natural language
c. Understand your research participants
d. Pilot your test questionnaire
15. Another name for a Likert Scale is a(n):
a. Interview protocol
b. Event sampling
c. Summated rating scale
d. Ranking
16. Which of the following is not one of the six major methods of data collection that are used by
educational researchers?
a. Observation
b. Interviews
c. Questionnaires
d. Checklists
17. The type of interview in which the specific topics are decided in advance but the sequence
and wording can be modified during the interview is called:
a. The interview guide approach
b. The informal conversational interview
c. A closed quantitative interview
d. The standardized open-ended interview
18. Which one of the following in not a major method of data collection:
a. Questionnaires
b. Interviews
c. Secondary data
d. Focus groups
e. All of the above are methods of data collection
19. A question during an interview such as “Why do you feel that way?” is known as a:
a. Probe
b. Filter question
c. Response
d. Pilot
20. A census taker often collects data through which of the following?
a. Standardized tests
b. Interviews
c. Secondary data
d. Observations
21. The researcher has secretly placed him or herself (as a member) in the group that is being
studied. This researcher may be which of the following?
a. A complete participant
b. An observer-as-participant
c. A participant-as-observer
d. None of the above
22. Which of the following is not a major method of data collection?
a. Questionnaires
b. Focus groups
c. Correlational method
d. Secondary data
23. Which type of interview allows the questions to emerge from the immediate context or
course of things?
a. Interview guide approach
b. Informal conversational interview
c. Closed quantitative interview
d. Standardized open-ended interview
24. When conducting an interview, asking "Anything else?, What do you mean?, Why do you
feel that way?," etc, are all forms of:
a. Contingency questions
b. Probes
c. Protocols
d. Response categories
25. When constructing a questionnaire, there are 15 principles to which you should adhere.
Which of the following is not one of those principles?
a. Do not use "leading" or "loaded" questions
b. Avoid double-barreled questions
c. Avoid double negatives
d. Avoid using multiple items to measure a single construct
Chapter 7
Multiple Choice Questions
1. When each member of a population has an equally likely chance of being selected, this is
called:
a. A nonrandom sampling method
b. A quota sample
c. A snowball sample
d. An Equal probability selection method
2. Which of the following techniques yields a simple random sample?
a. Choosing volunteers from an introductory psychology class to participate
b. Listing the individuals by ethnic group and choosing a proportion from within
each ethnic group at random.
c. Numbering all the elements of a sampling frame and then using a random number
table to pick cases from the table.
d. Randomly selecting schools, and then sampling everyone within the school.
3. Which of the following is not true about stratified random sampling?
a. It involves a random selection process from identified subgroups
b. Proportions of groups in the sample must always match their population proportions
c. Disproportional stratified random sampling is especially helpful for getting large enough
subgroup samples when subgroup comparisons are to be done
d. Proportional stratified random sampling yields a representative sample
4. Which of the following statements are true?
a. The larger the sample size, the greater the sampling error
b. The more categories or breakdowns you want to make in your data analysis, the larger
the sample needed
c. The fewer categories or breakdowns you want to make in your data analysis, the larger
the sample needed
d. As sample size decreases, so does the size of the confidence interval
5. Which of the following formulae is used to determine how many people to include in the
original sampling?
a. Desired sample size/Desired sample size + 1
b. Proportion likely to respond/desired sample size
c. Proportion likely to respond/population size
d. Desired sample size/Proportion likely to respond
6. Which of the following sampling techniques is an equal probability selection method (i.e.,
EPSEM) in which every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected?
a. Simple random sampling
b. Systematic sampling
c. Proportional stratified sampling
d. Cluster sampling using the PPS technique
e. All of the above are EPSEM
7. Which of the following is not a form of nonrandom sampling?
a. Snowball sampling
b. Convenience sampling
c. Quota sampling
d. Purposive sampling
e. They are all forms of nonrandom sampling
8. Which of the following will give a more “accurate” representation of the population from
which a sample has been taken?
a. A large sample based on the convenience sampling technique
b. A small sample based on simple random sampling
c. A large sample based on simple random sampling
d. A small cluster sample
9. Sampling in qualitative research is similar to which type of sampling in quantitative research?
a. Simple random sampling
b. Systematic sampling
c. Quota sampling
d. Purposive sampling
10. Which of the following would generally require the largest sample size?
a. Cluster sampling
b. Simple random sampling
c. Systematic sampling
d. Proportional stratified sampling
11. How often does the Census Bureau take a complete population count?
a. Every year
b. Every five years
c. Every ten years
d. Twice a year
12. People who are available, volunteer, or can be easily recruited are used in the sampling
method called .
a. Simple random sampling
b. Cluster sampling
c. Systematic sampling
d. Convenience sampling
13. Which of the following types of sampling involves the researcher determining the
appropriate sample sizes for the groups identified as important, and then taking convenience
samples from those groups?
a. Proportional stratified sampling
b. Quota sampling
c. One-stage cluster sampling
d. Two-stage cluster sampling
14. A type of sampling used in qualitative research that involves selecting cases that disconfirm
the researcher's expectations and generalizations is referred to as .
a. Extreme case sampling
b. Typical-case sampling
c. Critical-case sampling
d. Negative-case sampling
15. Using Figure 6.6 (pg. 178), how many participants will you need for a research study with a
population of 120,000?
a. 242
b. 331
c. 377
d. 384
16. In which of the following nonrandom sampling techniques does the researcher ask the
research participants to identify other potential research participants?
a. Snowball
b. Convenience
c. Purposive
d. Quota
17. Which of the following is the most efficient random sampling technique discussed in your
chapter?
a. Simple random sampling
b. Proportional stratified sampling
c. Cluster random sampling
d. Systematic sampling
18. If we took the 500 people attending a school in New York City, divided them by gender, and
then took a random sample of the males and a random sampling of the females, the variable on
which we would divide the population is called the .
a. Independent variable
b. Dependent variable
c. Stratification variable
d. Sampling variable
19. A number calculated with complete population data and quantifies a characteristic of the
population is called which of the following?
a. A datum
b. A statistic
c. A parameter
d. A population
20. The type of sampling in which each member of the population selected for the sample is
returned to the population before the next member is selected is called .
a. Sampling without replacement
b. Sampling with replacement
c. Simple random sampling
d. Systematic sampling
21. Which of the following is not a type of nonrandom sampling?
a. Cluster sampling
b. Convenience sampling
c. Quota sampling
d. Purposive sampling
e. They are all type of nonrandom sampling
22. Which of the following would usually require the smallest sample size because of its
efficiency?
a. One stage cluster sampling
b. Simple random sampling
c. Two stage cluster sampling
d. Quota sampling
23. A technique used when selecting clusters of different sizes is called .
a. Cluster sampling
b. One-stage sampling
c. Two-stage sampling
d. Probability proportional to size or PPS
24. The process of drawing a sample from a population is known as .
a. Sampling
b. Census
c. Survey research
d. None of the above
25. It is recommended to use the whole population rather than a sample when the population size
is of what size?
a. 500 or less
b. 100 or less
c. 1000 or less
d. you should always use a sample
26. Which of the following is not an example of a nonrandom sampling technique?
a. Purposive
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b. Quota
c. Convenience
d. Cluster
27. Which of the following sampling methods is the best way to select a group of people for a
study if you are interested in making statements about the larger population?
a. Convenience sampling
b. Quota sampling
c. Purposive sampling
d. Random sampling
28. is a set of elements taken from a larger population according to certain rules.
b. Population
c. Statistic
d. Element
29. Determining the sample interval (represented by k), randomly selecting a number between 1
and k, and including each kth element in your sample are the steps for which form of sampling?
a. Simple Random Sampling
b. Stratified Random Sampling
c. Systematic Sampling
d. Cluster sampling
30. The nonrandom sampling type that involves selecting a convenience sample from a
population with a specific set of characteristics for your research study is called .
a. Convenience sampling
b. Quota sampling
c. Purposive sampling
d. Snowball sampling
STA630 MCQs solved by Mehreen Humayun (Lecure 1-43)
STA630- Research Methods
Online Quiz
Lecture# 1 to 43
Shared & Solved by vuZs Team
Mehreen Humayun
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a. Sample
On which component of his field notes was Mr. M focused when he expressed in
his notes his thoughts and ideas about what he observed?
Reflection
Protocol
Formal data
Analysis
Reflection is thinking for an extended period by linking recent experiences to earlier
ones in order to promote a more complex and interrelated mental schema. The thinking
involves looking for commonalities, differences, and interrelations beyond their
superficial elements.
Which of the following is NOT a longitudinal study?
Trend study
Census study
Panel study
Cohort study
There are three types of longitudinal research: time series, panel, and cohort.
A census taker often collects data through which of the following?
Standardized tests
Interviews
Secondary data
Observations
Secondary Data: The data may be a time bound collection of information (population
census) as well as spread over long periods of time (unemployment trends, crime rate).
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What is opposite of a variable?
A constant
An extraneous variable
A dependent variable
A data set
The opposite of a variable is a constant.
A literature review requires;
planning
clear writing
good writing
All of the given option
A literature review requires planning and good, clear writing, which requires lot of
rewriting.
When we say that science is parsimonious, we mean that:
Scientific theories are based on laws.
We must be careful because causes can occur after specific effects.
The best scientific theories are those that offer the simplest explanations for a
law.
Science accurately describes a wide range of behavior.
Parsimonious is a big word for "simple." Really good scientists can explain a whole lot
by saying only a little.
If the control variable has no effect on the bivariate relationship then it is:
Spurious relationship.
Not spurious relationship.
Both A & B.
None of the above.
A researcher controls for a third variable by seeing whether the bivariate relationship
persists within categories of the control variable. In other words, the control variable has
no effect. When this is so, the bivariate relationship is not spurious.
Which term technically describes a situation in which an observer's work in a
first-grade classroom disrupts the normal routines due to the curiosity of the
students?
Observer effect
Participant effect
Non participant bias
Observer bias
Testing is most likely to negatively affect internal validity when .
The information tested is attitudinal in nature
The time between pre- and posttest is short
The instrument is unreliable
The participants are very low scorers
A researcher is interested in nonverbal behavior among young adults. The
researcher goes to public gathering places in town and observes smiles,
gestures, gaze, and touch. This is an example of;
Blind observation
Quasi-experimentation
Naturalistic observation
Field experimentation
“Skepticism” is a norm of science. It is better explained by which of the following
statement?
Combining the previous knowledge
Critical reading of the previous researches
Providing the proper references of qouted text
Locating research reports in libraries
Which type of research address major societal change?
Experimental Research
Action Research
Social Research
Historical Comparative Research
Which of the following terms best describes data that were originally collected at
an earlier time by a different person for a different purpose?
Primary data
Secondary data
Experimental data
Field notes
The person who leads a focus group discussion is called a .
Anchor
Facilitator
Moderator
Recorder
Focus Group Moderator: The person who leads a focus group discussion.
Categorical measures are forms of measurement classified as:
Measures that reflect quantitative differences.
Measures that reflect qualitative differences
Measures that do not require mutual exclusivity or exhaustiveness when devising a
measuring system.
Rationale measures.
If variables a and b are highly correlated, then
there is a strong relationship between a and b
a causes b
b causes a
there is no relationship between a and b.
In a study of the relationship between self-concept and resilience for males and
for females, the minimal acceptable sample size for the whole study would be
10
30
60
90
Which section of a research report sets the stage for the report and indicates
where in the report each component, tables, and figures can be found?
Preliminary pages
Table of contents
Main body
Appendices
Table of Contents: The table of contents is based on the final outline of the report, but it
should include first-level subdivisions. For short reports it is sufficient to include only the
main divisions. If the report includes many figures and tables, lists of these should
immediately follow the table of contents.
Which of the following is the least obtrusive and most accurate method for
recording data in an interview?
Note taking
Videotaping
Audiotaping
Writing notes after the interview.
Which of the following is an excellent way to enhance the validity of
observational data collection?
Spend an extended period of time in the field.
Obtain participant trust.
Recognize your own biases.
All of the above.
Which of the following is a measure in which a researcher adds or combines
several distinct indicators of a construct into a single score?
Scale
Index
Unidimensionality
Weighting
An index is a measure in which a researcher adds or combines several distinct
indicators of a construct into a single score.
Which type of research address major societal change?
Experimental research
Action research
Social research
Historical comparative research
Historical comparative research is a powerful method for addressing big questions: How
did major societal change take place?
In which of the following sampling methods People are available such as
volunteer or can be easily recruited?
Simple random sampling
Cluster sampling
Systematic sampling
Convenience sampling
Which of the following can be referred as semantic analysis?
Latent coding
Accretion
Count behaviors
Intensity
Latent Coding: A researcher using latent coding (also called semantic analysis).
Which of the following group that does not receive the experimental treatment
condition?
Experimental group
Control group
Treatment group
Independent group.
Which of the following is a measure of inflation?
Scale
Consumer price index
Weighting
Unidimensionality
Consumer Price Index (CPI) is a measure of inflation and is widely followed by many
investors.
Which of the following is newer method of survey?
Mail survey
E-mail survey
Field survey
STA630 Research Methods MCQs Solved with Ref by vuzs
Team
STA630 Research Methods Quiz
MCQs Solved With Ref by vuZs Team
STA630 - Research Methods - Question # 1 of 15
If a researcher was studying the use of various instructional approaches to the "multiple
intelligences" of his students, he is likely to be conducting which type of research?
>
Basic
Applied
Evaluation
Grounded theory
STA630 - Research Methods - Question # 2 of 15
Which of the following statements is false?
>
Discrete variables allow measurement of an infinite number of fractions of units of measurement.
Discrete variables can only have whole number values.
Continuous numbers can only have whole number values.
Continuous measures do not allow for scores that fall between two number values.
STA630 - Research Methods - Question # 3 of 15
Which one of the following creates problems of measurements of a concept?
>
Unambiguous meanings
Vague meanings
Clear meanings
Dictionary meanings
STA630 - Research Methods - Question # 4 of 15
Which of the following is not a concept?
>
Leadership
Total Quality Management
Human Resource Management
IQ
STA630 - Research Methods - Question # 5 of 15
What research is?
>
A lab experiment
A report
A systematic Enquiry
A procedure
STA630 - Research Methods - Question # 6 of 15
Which of the following is a concept?
>
Leadership.
Total Quality Management.
| 0 Comments |
Human Resource Management.
All of the given options
STA630 - Research Methods - Question # 7 of 15
When we say that science is parsimonious, we mean that:
>
Scientific theories are based on laws.
We must be careful because causes can occur after specific effects.
The best scientific theories are those that offer the simplest explanations for a law.
Science accurately describes a wide range of behavior.
http://books.google.com/books?id=AUDoylSe_EC&pg=PP1&dq=inauthor:"Donald+H.+McBurney"&ei=7ebZS7ayLqrgkQTYhLmECA&cd=1#v=onep
age&q=science%20is%20parsimonious&f=false
STA630 - Research Methods - Question # 8 of 15
Why, as scientists, do we not want to rely on authority for explanations?
>
Those in authority are often wrong.
Those in authority cannot be challenged.
Those in authority rely too much on objective information.
Those in authority often have no common sense.
STA630 - Research Methods - Question # 9 of 15
The is only useful if the concepts, ideas, STA630 - Research Methods - Questions, etc.
to be investigated are both testable and falsifiable.
>
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Experimental Method
Scientific Method
STA630 - Research Methods - Question # 10 of 15
An operational definition is:
>
One that bears no relation to the underlying concept.
An abstract, theoretical definition of a concept.
A definition of a concept in terms of specific, empirical measures.
One that refers to opera singers and their work.
D
evising measures of concepts is shown as step 4 in the process of quantitative research (fig. 6.1, p141).
Bryman points out that this step is often referred to as operationalization, in other words the series of
separate steps we will take to make our research work for us. This is very important when we think about
tests of validity of the research. The operational definition is, therefore, the very opposite of abstract,
attempting to phrase the concept so precisely as to make it capable of being tested in the research
context.
STA630 - Research Methods - Question # 11 of 15
meanings attached to a concept create problems of measurements.
>
Unambiguous
Vague
Clear
Dictionary
STA630 - Research Methods - Question # 12 of 15
To say that a theory is falsifiable is to say that;
>
It is based on results that are not replicable.
Investigators have replaced it with a simpler or more accurate theory.
We can imagine results that would contradict it.
It is so vague that it fits any and all possible results.
STA630 - Research Methods - Question # 13 of 15
According to Empiricism, which of the following is the ultimate source of all our concepts and
knowledge?
>
Perceptions
Theory
Sensory experience
Logics and arguments
STA630 - Research Methods - Question # 14 of 15
Why do you need to review the existing literature?
>
To give your dissertation a proper academic appearance, with lots of references
Because without it, you could never reach the required word-count
To find out what is already known about your area of interest
To help in your general studying
STA630 - Research Methods - Question # 15 of 15
Quantitative researcher's preoccupation with generalization is an attempt to:
>
Develop the law like findings of the natural sciences.
Boost their chances of publication.
Enhance the internal validity of their research.
Demonstrate the complex techniques of statistical analysis.
STA630 - Research Methods - Question # 15 of 15
In _ we collect same type of information from different respondents in different times.
>
Cohort study
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Time series Research
Panel study
Case studies
(zh,vuzs)
STA630 Solved MCQs from Quizzes A
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http://www.vuzs.info/
Select the most suitable option.
1. Which is not a source of existing statistics?
A. Government
B. International agencies
C. Personal interviews
D. Private sources
2. Followings are the advantages of secondary data except
A. Non-Reactivity
B. Selective survival
C. Low cost
D. Spontaneity
3. Following are the disadvantages of secondary data except
A. Longitudinal analysis
B. Sampling bias
C. Coding difficult
D. Incompleteness
4. The coding of the secondary data may be difficult because of
A. Differences in content or subject matter
B. Lack of standardization
C. Differences in length and format
D. All of these
5. The researcher must be concerned about the following problems while using
secondary data in research.
A. Validity
B. Reliability
C. Both of these
D. None of these
6- Hypothesis refers to
A. The outcome of an experiment
B. A conclusion drawn from an experiment
C. A form of bias in which the subject tries to outguess the experimenter
D. A tentative statement about the relationship
7- Statistics is used by researchers to
A. Analyze the empirical data collected in a study
B. Make their findings sound better
C. Operationally define their variables
D. Ensure the study comes out the way it was intended
8- A literature review requires
A. Planning
B. Good & clear writing
C. Lot of rewriting
D. All of the above
9- A literature review is based on the assumption that
A. Copy from the work of others
B. Knowledge accumulates and learns from the work of others
C. Knowledge disaccumulates
D. None of the above option
10- A theoretical framework
A. Elaborates the r/s among the variables
B. Explains the logic underlying these r/s
C. Describes the nature and direction of the r/s
D. All of the above
11- Which of the following statement is not true?
A. A research proposal is a document that presents a plan for a project
B. A research proposal shows that the researcher is capable of successfully conductingthe
proposed research project
C. A research proposal is an unorganized and unplanned project
D. A research proposal is just like a research report and written before the research project
12- Preliminary data collection is a part of the
A. Descriptive research
B. Exploratory research
C. Applied research
D. Explanatory research
13- Conducting surveys is the most common method of generating
A. Primary data
B. Secondary data
C. Qualitative data
D. None of the above
14- After identifying the important variables and establishing the logical reasoningin
theoretical framework, the next step in the research process is
A. To conduct surveys
B. To generate the hypothesis
C. To focus group discussions
D. To use experiments in an investigation
15- The appropriate analytical technique is determined by
A. The research design
B. Nature of the data collected
C. Nature of the hypothesis
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D. Both A & B
STA630 Solved MCQs from Quizzes B
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16- Personal interviews conducted in shopping malls are known as:
A. Mall interviews
B. Mall intercept interviews
C. Brief interviews
D. None of the given options
17- WATS lines provided by long distance telephone service at fixed rates. In this regard, WATS is the
abbreviation of:
E. West Africa Theological Seminary
F. Washtenaw Area Transportation Study
G. Wide Area Telecommunications Service
H. World Air Transport Statistics
list of questions which is handed over to the respondent, who reads the questions and records the
answers himself is known as the:
I. Interview schedule
J. Questionnaire
K. Interview guide
L. All of the given options
19- One of the most critical stages in the survey research process is:
M. Research design
N. Questionnaire design
O. Interview design
P. Survey design
20- Question that consists of two or more questions joined together is called a:
Q. Double barreled question
R. General question
S. Accurate question
T. Confusing question
21- The number of questionnaires returned or completed divided by the total number of eligible people
who were contacted or asked to participate in the survey is called the:
U. Response rate
V. Participation rate
W. Inflation rate
X. None of the given options
22- To obtain the freest opinion of the respondent, when we ask general question before a specific
question then this procedure is called as the:
Y. Research technique
Z. Qualitative technique
AA. Funnel technique
BB. Quantitativetechnique
23-A small scale trial run of a particular component is known as:
CC. Pilot testing
DD. Pre-testing
EE. Lab experiments
FF.Both A & B
24- Field testing of the questionnaire shows that:
GG. Respondents are willing to co-operate
HH. Respondents are not willing to co-operate
II. Respondents do not like any participation
JJ. All of the given options
25- Service evaluation of hotels and restaurants can be done by the:
KK. Self-administered questionnaires
LL. Office assistant
MM. Manager
NN. None of the given options
26. _ research is based on naturalism.
A. Field research
B. Descriptive research
C. Basic research
D. Applied research
27- Personal interviews conducted in shopping malls are known as_ __
A. Mall interviews
B. Mall intercept interviews
C. Brief interviews
D. None of the given options
28. _ is used to obtain the freest opinion of the respondent, by asking
general question before a specific question.
A. Research technique
B. Qualitative technique
C. Funnel technique
D. Quantitative technique
29. In, _the interviewer and members jointly control the pace and
direction of the interview.
A. Field interview
B. Telephonic interview
C. Both A and B
D. None of the given options
30. Randomization of test units is a part of _
A. Pretest
B. Posttest
C. Matching
D. Experiment
31. Which one of the following sets is the measure of central tendency?
a. Mean, standard deviation, mode
b. Mean, median, standard deviation
c. Arithmetic mean, median, mode
d. Standard deviation, internal validity, mode
32. Internal validity refers to .
a. Researcher’s degree of confidence.
b. Generalizability
c. Operationalization
d. All of the above
33. How many times the students appear in the research class is the example of
.
a. Intensity
b. Space
c. Frequency
d. Direction
34. Time consumed in mall intercept interview is .
a. High
b. Moderate
c. Low
d. Nil
35. Departmental stores selected to test a new merchandising display system is
the example of .
a. Quota sampling
b. Convenience sampling
c. Judgmental sampling
d. Purposive sampling
36. In _, the researcher attempts to control and/ or manipulate the variables in
the study.
1. Experiment
2. Hypothesis
3. Theoretical framework
4. Research design
36. In an experimental research study, the primary goal is to isolate and identify the effect
produced by the _ .
1. Dependent variable
2. Extraneous variable
37. Independent variable
4. Confounding variable
3. A measure is reliable if it provides consistent .
1. Hypothesis
2. Results
3. Procedure
4. Sensitivity
38. The interview in which questions are already prepared is called .
1. Telephonic interview
2. Personal interview
3. Unstructured interview
4. Structured interview
39. The numerical description that describe sample may be expected to differ from those
that describe population because of random fluctuations inherent in sampling process.
1. Sampling design
2. Non-probability sampling
3. Sampling error
4. Probability sampling
40. In _ , each population element has a known and equal chance of
selection.
1. Purposive sampling
2. Quota sampling
3. Stratified sampling
4. Simple random sampling
41. _ is the evidence that the instrument, techniques, or process used tomeasure
concept does indeed measure the intended concepts.
1. Reliability
2. Replicability
3. Scaling
4. Validity
42. A researcher is interested in studying why the “new math” of the 1960s failed. She
interviews several teachers who used the new math during the 1960s. These teachers are
considered as:
1. Primary sources
2. Secondary Sources
3. External critics
4. Internal critics
42. Which of the following is NOT true about stratified random sampling?
1. It involves a random selection process from identified subgroups
2. Proportions of groups in the sample must always match their population
proportions
3. Disproportional stratified random sampling is especially helpful for gettinglarge
enough subgroup samples when subgroup comparisons are to be done
4. Proportional stratified random sampling yields a representative sample
43. Experimental design is the only appropriate design where_ relationship can
be established.
1. Strong
2. Linear
3. Weak
4. Cause and Effect
45. All the persons involved in the collection of data and supervision of data collection
process are called
i. Fieldworkers
ii. Researchers
iii. Research assistants
iv. None of the given options
46. While terminating the interview, the fieldworker should not do one of the following:
i. He should record all the responses made by the interviewee before leaving.
ii. He should thank the interviewee.
iii. He should close the interview hastily.
iv. He should answer all the questions the respondent asks concerning the nature
and purpose of the study.
47. Which one of these is a type of Interviewee bias?
i. The respondent does not tell his true income, age, or contact information.
ii. The fieldworker fails to probe the interviewee properly.
iii. The fieldworker contacted the wrong person for interview.
iv. The fieldworker asks the questions in wrong order.
48. A magazine conducts a survey and asks its readers to cut the questionnaire from the
magazine, fill it and send it via mail. It is a type of
i. Purposive sampling
ii. Snowball sampling
iii. Sequential sampling
iv. Convenience sampling
49. The height distribution of a few students in a school is an example of
i. Statistic
ii. Population
iii. Parameter
iv. Element
50. A researcher wants to conduct a survey of the drug users. Which type ofsampling
technique will be most appropriate here?
i. Sequential sampling
ii. Snowball sampling
iii. Quota sampling
iv. Convenience sampling
STA630 Solved MCQs from Quizzes C
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56- In lab experiment the effect of Variables is controlled to evaluate the causal relationship.
a. Extraneous
b. Moderate
c. Intervening
d. All of the above
57- Internal validity refers to .
a. Researcher’s degree of confidence.
b. Generalizability
c. Operationalization
d. All of the above
58- Which of the following is the weakest experimental design?
a. One group pretest-posttest design
b. Quasi- experimental design
c. Two group posttest only design
d. Ex post facto design
59- How many times the students appear in the research class is the example of .
a. Intensity
b. Space
c. Frequency
d. Direction
60- Disadvantage of content analysis is .
a. Researcher can increase the sample size
b. Provides access on the subjects to which researcher does have physical access.
c. Sometime documents provide incomplete account to the researcher
d. Spontaneous feelings can be recorded when they occurred
61-. Which of the following statement is incorrect with respect to “An experimental design is a
set of procedures specifying:”
a. How the test units (subjects) are to be divided into homogenous sub samples.
| 0 Comments |
b. What independent variables or treatments are to be measured?
c. What dependent variables are to be measured?
d. How the extraneous variables are to be controlled?
62-. Time consumed in mall intercept interview is .
a. High
b. Moderate
c. Low
d. Nil
63-. “Teacher should create a friendly environment in the classroom” this is the type of .
a. Leading question
b. Loaded question
c. Double Barreled
d. Burdensome question
64-. Departmental stores selected to test a new merchandising display system is the example
of .
a. Quota sampling
b. Convenience sampling
c. Judgmental sampling
d. Purposive sampling
65-Discrete variable is also called……….
1.
A. Categorical variable
B. Discontinuous variable
C. Both A & B
D. None of the above
66“Officers in my organization have higher than average level of commitment”
Such a hypothesis is an example of……….
A.Descriptive Hypothesis
B. Directional Hypothesis
C. Relational Hypothesis
D. All of the above
67- ‘Science’ refers to……….
A. A system for producing knowledge
B. The knowledge produced by a system
C. Both A & B
D. None of the above
68- Which one of the following is not a characteristic of scientific method?
1.
A. Deterministic
B. Rationalism
C. Empirical
D. Abstraction
69- The theoretical framework discusses the interrelationships among the……….
A. Variables
B. Hypothesis
C. Concept
D. Theory
70........... research is based on naturalism.
1.
A. Field research
B. Descriptive research
C. Basic research
D. Applied research
71- Personal interviews conducted in shopping malls are known as………
1.
A. Mall interviews
B. Mall intercept interviews
C. Brief interviews
D. None of the given options
72- ……… is used to obtain the freest opinion of the respondent, by asking generalquestion
before a specific question.
1.
A. Research technique
B. Qualitative technique
C. Funnel technique
D. Quantitative technique
73- In, ……… the interviewer and members jointly control the pace and direction of the
interview.
M. Field interview
N. Telephonic interview
O. Both A and B
P. None of the given options
74- Randomization of test units is a part of ………
1.
A. Pretest
B. Posttest
C. Matching
D. Experiment
75. _ research is based on naturalism.
A. Field research
B. Descriptive research
C. Basic research
D. Applied research
76. Personal interviews conducted in shopping malls are known as_ __
A. Mall interviews
B. Mall intercept interviews
C. Brief interviews
D. None of the given options
77. _ is used to obtain the freest opinion of the respondent, by asking
general question before a specific question.
A. Research technique
B. Qualitative technique
C. Funnel technique
D. Quantitative technique
78. In, ___________ the interviewer and members jointly control the pace and
direction of the interview.
A. Field interview
B. Telephonic interview
C. Both A and B
D. None of the given options
79. Randomization of test units is a part of _
A. Pretest
B. Posttest
C. Matching
D. Experiment
80. Which one of the following sets is the measure of central tendency?
a. Mean, standard deviation, mode
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b. Mean, median, standard deviation
c. Arithmetic mean, median, mode
d. Standard deviation, internal validity, mode
81. Internal validity refers to .
a. Researcher’s degree of confidence.
b. Generalizability
c. Operationalization
d. All of the above
82. How many times the students appear in the research class is the example of
.
a. Intensity
b. Space
c. Frequency
d. Direction
83. Time consumed in mall intercept interview is .
a. High
b. Moderate
c. Low
d. Nil
84. Departmental stores selected to test a new merchandising display system is
the example of .
a. Quota sampling
b. Convenience sampling
c. Judgmental sampling
d. Purposive sampling
STA630 Solved MCQs from Quizzes D
Shared and compiled by
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51. When there is a need to apply different data collection methods to different parts of
the population, the best sampling method would be
i. Double sampling
ii. Cluster sampling
iii. Stratified random sampling
iv. Systematic random sampling
52. The sampling technique in which every element of the population has an equal, nonzero
probability of being selected in a sample, is called
i. Probability sampling
ii. Convenience sampling
iii. Purposive sampling
iv. Quota sampling
53. Target population is also called
i. Population
ii. Survey population
iii. Population element
iv. Population frame
54. Which one of them is the method for probing the respondent?
i. Repeat the question
ii. Give an expectant pause
iii. Repeat the respondent’s reply
iv. All of the given options
Note: The correct options are highlighted in blue.
55. Which one of the following sets is the measure of central tendency?
a. Mean, standard deviation, mode
b. Mean, median, standard deviation
c. Arithmetic mean, median, mode
d. Standard deviation, internal validity, mode
85. In _, the researcher attempts to control and/ or manipulate the variables in
the study.
1. Experiment
2. Hypothesis
3. Theoretical framework
4. Research design
86. In an experimental research study, the primary goal is to isolate and identify the effect
produced by the _ .
1. Dependent variable
2. Extraneous variable
3. Independent variable
4. Confounding variable
87. A measure is reliable if it provides consistent _ .
1. Hypothesis
2. Results
3. Procedure
4. Sensitivity
88. The interview in which questions are already prepared is called .
1. Telephonic interview
2. Personal interview
3. Unstructured interview
4. Structured interview
89. The numerical description that describe sample may be expected to differ from those
that describe population because of random fluctuations inherent in sampling process.
1. Sampling design
2. Non-probability sampling
3. Sampling error
4. Probability sampling
90. In _ , each population element has a known and equal chance of
selection.
1. Purposive sampling
2. Quota sampling
3. Stratified sampling
4. Simple random sampling
91. _ is the evidence that the instrument, techniques, or process used tomeasure
concept does indeed measure the intended concepts.
1. Reliability
2. Replicability
3. Scaling
4. Validity
92. A researcher is interested in studying why the “new math” of the 1960s failed. She
interviews several teachers who used the new math during the 1960s. These teachers are
considered as:
1. Primary sources
2. Secondary Sources
3. External critics
4. Internal critics
93. Which of the following is NOT true about stratified random sampling?
1. It involves a random selection process from identified subgroups
2. Proportions of groups in the sample must always match their population
proportions
94. Disproportional stratified random sampling is especially helpful for getting large
enough subgroup samples when subgroup comparisons are to be done
4. Proportional stratified random sampling yields a representative sample
95. Experimental design is the only appropriate design where_ relationship can
be established.
1. Strong
2. Linear
3. Weak
4. Cause and Effect
96. Rationalism is the application of which of the following?
A. Logic and arguments
B. Research solution
C. Reasoning
D. Previous findings
97 On which of the following, scientific knowledge mostly relies?
A. Logical understanding
B. Identification of events
C. Prior knowledge
D. All of the given options (MH,vuZs)
98. Which of the following refers to research supported by measurable
evidence?
A. Opinion
B. Empiricism
C. Speculation
D. Rationalism
99. Research method is applicable in all of the following fields, EXCEPT;
A. Health care
B. Religion
C. Business
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D. Government offices
100. All of the following are true statements about action research, EXCEPT;
A. Data are systematically analyzed
B. Data are collected systematically
C. Results are generalizable
D. Results are used to improve practice
TA630 Solved MCQs from Quizzes E
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101. Which of the following is characteristic of action research?
A. Variables are tightly controlled
B. Results are generalizable
C. Data are usually qualitative
D. Results demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships
102. If a researcher is studying the effect of using laptops in his classroom to
ascertain their merit and worth, he is likely conducting which of the
following types of research?
A. Experimental
B. Applied
C. Basic
D. Evaluation
103. Exploratory research addresses which of the following types of
question?
A. If
B. How
C. Why
D. What
104. Which of the following is not the source for getting information for
exploratory research?
A. Content analysis
B. Survey
C. Case study
D. Pilot study
105. Which of the following is the main quality of a good theory?
A. A theory that has survived attempts at falsification
B. A theory that is proven to be right
C. A theory that has been disproved
D. A theory that has been falsified
106. Which of the following is not a concept?
A. Leadership
B. Total Quality Management
C. Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
D. Human Resource Management
107. A variable that is presumed to cause a change in another variable is
known as:
A. Discontinuous variable
B. Dependent variable
C. Independent variable
D. Intervening variable
108. Which of the following is the opposite of a variable?
A. An extraneous variable
B. A dependent variable
C. A data set
D. A constant
109. Which of the following can best be described as a categorical
variable?
A. Age
B. Annual income
C. Grade point average
D. Religion
110. “Income distribution of employees” in a specific organization is an
example of which of following type of variable?
A. Discontinuous variable
B. Continuous variable
C. Dependent variable
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D. Independent variable
111. “There is no relationship between higher motivation level and higher
efficiency” is an example of which type of hypothesis?
A. Alternative
B. Null
C. Co relational
D. Research
112. Which of the following is not a role of hypothesis?
A. Guides the direction of the study
B. Determine feasibility of conducting the study
C. Identifies relevant and irrelevant facts
D. Provides framework for organizing the conclusions
113. Hypothesis test may also be called as:
A. Informal test
B. Significance test
C. Moderating test
D. T-test
STA630 Answers key to MCQs
Answer key STA630
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Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of the following dimensions of information does correlational analysis NOT provide?
c. cause and effect.
2. A sociologist wants to know if the proportion of Americans who supports gay marriage has changed
over the last 10 years. The best research method for investigating this topic is:
b. analysis of survey data.
3. Suzanne is a subject participating in a study. As part of the study, she gave an electric shock to
another subject who made an error on a word recall task. At the end of the study, an experimenter told
Suzanne that the study really concerned obedience to authority, that it is normal for subjects to obey the
experimenter, and it is important to understand obedience. The experimenter’s explanation is an example
of:
d. debriefing.
4. Professor Smith hypothesizes that how much students sleep each night may influence their
performance on math tests. According to this proposition, hours of sleep is the __ and
math test score is the _ _.
a. independent variable, dependent variable.
5. The two conditions that must be met for social psychology research to be
considered experimentation are:
a. random assignment, relevant variables other than the independent variable are held constant.
6. A random sample is:
b. a sample in which each person in a given population is equally likely to be selected.
7. According to the symbolic interactionist perspective, people can only communicate if
c. They have a consensus of meaning.
8. Mike and Hillary meet at a party, and engage in a discussion of politics. According to Heider’s balance
theory, which of the following outcomes would illustrate an imbalanced relationship:
b. Mike likes Hillary; he supports the Republicans and she is an avid Democrat.
9. Which of these processes guides human behavior, according to social exchange theory?
c. Maximizing gains.
10. Naomi is driving to the hospital very quickly, because she is taking her sick child in for an emergency
surgery. On the drive to the hospital, she exceeds the speed limit and runs through a stop sign. She is
apprehended by the police, and eventually goes to court to resolve the matter. The presiding judge
operates at a level of post-conventional morality. What might the judge say about the situation?
c. It’s okay that Naomi violated the speed limit; the health of her child is more important than
abiding by the law.
11. Which of the following is NOT a basis for moral judgments according to Piaget?
c. Whether actor has internalized norms of “right” and “wrong.”
12. External validity refers to:
b. the extent to which we can generalize the results of a study to other populations and settings.
13. In the play stage of the formation of the self, children
b. take the role of others one at a time.
14. The subset of self-concepts that constitutes the self at a particular time in a particular situation is
called:
d. Situated self.
15. Which of the following statements accurately characterizes Baumrind’s theory of social class
differences in socialization styles?
a. The best way to raise children is with high warmth and high control.
16. Tracy would like to get along well with her boss. In an attempt to understand and predict her boss’s
behavior, Tracy tries to imagine what it would be like to be the boss. Tracy’s behavior is an example of:
b. role-taking.
17. Which of the following statements is true about peers as agents of socialization?
a. Peers often teach each other lessons and reinforce messages that are in opposition to the
messages taught by other socializing agents, including parents and teachers.
18. Reinforcement theory argues that a person’s behavior is:
b. governed by external events, especially rewards and punishments.
19. The belief that people usually behave in ways that conform to norms and social expectations is a
central tenet of which theoretical perspective?
a. role theory.
20. When Danny was young, he witnessed his mother praising his father for doing chores around the
house. When Danny grows up, he also helps his spouse with household chores. This is an exampleof:
c. observational learning.
Examples of full credit answers, Sociology 319, Exam #1
1. Test-retest versus split-half method
Test-retest and the split-half method are two different ways for testing the reliability of a survey. Testretest is the least practical of the two, where the survey would be given to the same cluster of individuals
at different points in time. Test-retest becomes less of use since the surveyees might answer the same as
in the first survey in order to be consistent. The split-half method is the more beneficial of the two options
since a group of questions, which measure the same component, are divided into two groups of questions
within the survey, perhaps in the beginning and at the end. Test-rest example: issue a survey today and
then once more in two weeks. Split-half method you would divide a group of questions measuring how
“caring” someone is.
2. Participant observation
Participant observation is a form of field study that involves the researcher studying a particular group by
involving themselves in the group activities. There are some problems with this type of study. The
researcher may display certain types of bias in their research due to connections they may make with
those they observe. The members of the group being studied may act differently than normal due to the
awareness of an outsider entering the group. An example of this form of field study could be that of a
researcher who wants to study the social structure of boxing in poor areas. The researcher becomes
involved in the boxing community and actually boxes himself, to enter this private social world.
3. Cognitive dissonance
Cognitive dissonance is the theory that people seek to maintain cohesion in their cognitions when attitude
and behavior contradict each other. In response to a contradiction, a person may change his/her attitude
or behavior, trivialize the behavior, find information supporting his newly changed attitude, or deny the
occurrence of the behavior. People will often choose the least drastic and easiest mechanisms. An
example: Calvin is a staunch opponent of affirmative action. One day he enters a conversation with
several coworkers about affirmative action. They are all minorities who are for affirmative action. Calvin
agrees with them but trivializes the behavior later, claiming to himself the peer pressure to conform was
too much.
4. I and me
This theory by Mead says the self is made up of the “I” (the active subject” and the “me” (the passive
object). The self is complete when one can function smoothly between the “I’ and the “me”. Children
usually develop this distinction (and therefore the whole self around the age of 4) when language
develops because language is very important for this “I” and “me” relationship to work. This uses symbolic
interaction theory.
5. Looking glass self
The looking glass self is a theory outlined by Cooley. It states that our sense of self is derived from our
interactions with others and depends on (a) our ability to perceive ourselves as we think others perceive
us; (b) how we feel others judge us; and (c) how we feel about these perceived judgments. The looking
glass self is apparent on shows like “American Idol” where the person auditioning turns out to be a terrible
singer. When the judges disapprove of their performance they may say “but all my friends say I sing well.”
This reflects one’s perception of how others see him or her and how it has influenced his/her self-concept
as a good singer.
6. Racial socialization
Racial socialization, like socialization, is the process by which members of a particular race learn the
beliefs, culture, values, norms, rules etc. of the particular ethnic/racial group to which they belong. This is
important because it prepares the individual for how to live in society as a member of a particular race
and how he/she may deal with difficulties pertinent to being a member of that race such as discrimination
from other groups. An example of such lessons learned through racial socialization would be “don’t drive
on that street alone at night if no one else like you is around” or “don’t trust white people.”
C. Essay question (25 points)
One of the most widely documented findings in social psychology is that adolescent girls have lower selfesteem than their male peers. Policy makers have hired you to help them understand the reasons for this
pattern, and to offer advice for practices that may help to eliminate girls’ disadvantage. You are to
address each of these issues in your brief report:
(1) what is “self-esteem” and why is it an important concept? [4 points]
(2) briefly describe three of the following five theories that are generally used to explain self-esteem
patterns: social comparison theory; reflected appraisals; psychological salience/centrality; self-perception
theory; and self-discrepancy theory. [12 points]
(3) how would each of the 3 theories discussed in part (2) explain the gender gap in self-esteem? Your
discussion can be speculative, but should draw on your knowledge of gender socialization. [5points]
(4) based on your knowledge of social psychology, what recommendations would you give to policy
makers or educators hoping to boost girls’ self-esteem? [4 points]
(1) Self-esteem is the attitude we hold toward ourselves, or the overall evaluation we have for the self. It’s
an important concept because it affects our behaviors, thoughts, and feelings.
(2) According to the social comparison theory, people are constantly seeking to evaluate themselves.
Since there is no objective base to measure ourselves, we compare ourselves with people who are
similar to us in important traits. Usually when we compare ourselves with people superior to us, our selfesteem is compromised. When we compare down, our self-esteem is enhanced. However, this is not
always the case. When we associate ourselves with superiors, our self-esteem might “bask in the
reflected glory” of others.
According to the psychological salience theory, our self-esteem depends largely on domains central to
our identity. For example, a social activist might care much more about her leadership skills than her
artistic aptitude. So her weaknesses can’t compromise her self-esteem much if it’s from a domain
peripheral to her self-concept.
According to the self-discrepancy theory, who we are, what we should be and what we’d like to be affect
our self-esteem. When our actual self does not match with what we ought to be (often dictated by role
expectations) we feel guilt and fear. When the actual self falls short of our idealized self, we feel sad and
depressed. Thus, self-esteem is compromised when discrepancy exists between the actual self and the
other two selves.
(3) Social Comparison Theory: When a girl sees her teaching praising the intellectual quality of her male
classmate’s work, whereas she only got comments on her neat handwriting, she perceives the boy as
superior to her intellectually. Thus her self-esteem in the intellectual domain is lowered.
Psychological Salience Theory: When a girl believes appearance is more important than knowledge,
she’ll downplay her mediocre grades and overemphasize her taste in fashion. This method protects her
self-esteem temporarily but it shifts her self-esteem, to a different domain from what the general culture or
economy expects.
Self-Discrepancy Theory: An athletic and outspoken girl feels pressure to conform to feminine
expectations from her parents. Her actual self and ought self are in conflict and her sense of self-esteem
is weakened.
(4) If teen magazines used more real-life images of women rather than supermodels, then girls would
have a more realistic comparison base when they reflect on their body images. A lower of attractive
standards in models might boost girls’ self-esteem. A more radical approach would be to replace teen
magazines with literary and scientific journals for young adults. Self-esteem rested on physical
appearance is too easily crushed in any case.
Quiz #2 STA 630
Shared by Muhammad Naveed
Checked by vuZs Team
http://groups.google.com/group/vuZs
http://www.vuzs.info/
If a nominal scale is used, it is permissible to calculate which of the following statistics?
Select correct option:
Mean
Range
Percentile
Mode
The key objective of data analysis is to:
Select correct option:
Calculate statistics
Understand relationships between variables
Obtain the distribution of responses for each question
Create tables which display the survey results
Question # 3 of 15
Bias is defined as;
Select correct option:
The distortion of responses based on gender, ethnicity, race, or language
A lack of validity
A lack of reliability
A poor interpretation of a student's score
Question # 4 of 5
Which of the following is a research method that allows a researcher to get information
about a large number of subjects relatively inexpensively and easily?
Select correct option:
Naturalistic observation
Case study
Laboratory observation
Survey
http://www.sparknotes.com/psychology/psych101/researchmethods/quiz.html
Question # 5 of 15
What is the first step in the research process?
Select correct option:
Preliminary data collection
Problem definition Theoretical
framework
Define broad problem area
Step I: Formulating a Research Problem
Formulating a research problem is the first and most important step in the research process.
A research problem identifies your destination: it should tell you, your research supervisor and your
readers what you intend to research.
Question # 6 of 15
When you are confident that the experimental manipulation produced the changes you
measured in the dependent variable, your study probably has
good validity.
Select correct option:
Construct Internal
External
Causal
Internal
Question # 7 of 15
What is a relationship between the literature survey and the theoretical framework?
Select correct option:
Provides a solid foundation for developing the latter
Literature survey helps in the identification of the relevant variables
The theoretical framework explains the theory underlying these relations
All of the given options
There is a relationship between the literature survey and the theoretical framework whereby the former
provides a solid foundation for developing the latter. Literature survey helps in the identification of the
relevant variables, as determined by the previous researches. This in addition to other logical connections
that can be conceptualized forms the basis for the theoretical model. The theoretical framework elaborates
the relationships among the variables, explains the theory underlying these relations, and describes the
nature and direction of the relationships.
Question # 8 of 15
In which way does a ratio scale measurement differ from an interval measurement?
Select correct option:
It measures larger or smaller scores on some underlying dimension.
It implies the existence of an absolute zero value.
It requires the mutual exclusivity of all cases.
It requires that exhaustiveness is applied to all observations.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Eo2HMtTjz0gC&pg=PA56&lpg=PA56&dq=It+implies+the+existence+o
f+an+absolute+zero+value&source=bl&ots=rcK4H9iA8M&sig=HLMji_muYxECLIxEdYBmYkfaPI&hl=en&ei=n676S5bUHdHBrAe61cC9Cg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=It%20implies%20the%20existence%20of%20an%20absolute%20zero%20value&
f=false
Question # 9 of 15
All of these are characteristics of scientific methods of research except, it is
Select correct option:
Cumulative Deterministic
Unethical (handouts pg#5)
Rationalism
Question # 10 of 15
The elaboration of the variables in the theoretical framework addresses which type of
questions?
Select correct option:
Why we expect certain relationships to exist How
we expect certain relationships to exist
Both of the given questions
None of the given questions
Question # 11 of 15
Which of the following is the least appropriate research problem?
Select correct option:
Does studying Latin improve the standardized vocabulary test scores of
seventh grade students?
Does drilling fifth grade students with multiplication facts improve their standardized test
scores?
What is the relationship between students' math attitudes and math achievement?
Should students have access to controversial novels in school?
http://shafiqurrehman1.livejournal.com/1890.html
Question # 12 of 15
A scale only assigns numbers to objects to classify the objects according to
the
characteristic of interest.
Select correct option:
Ratio Nominal
Interval
Dichotomous
http://www.georgiacenter.uga.edu/is/mr/quiz/checkquiz.phtml
Question # 13 of 15
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a good research topic?
Select correct option:
It is ethical.
It can be investigated through the collection and analysis of data.
It focuses on a philosophical or ethical
issue. It is theoretically or practically significant.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/0,11083,2525651-content,00.utf8.html
Question # 14 of 15
Which of the following should not be a consideration in writing a proposal?
Select correct option:
Understanding the problem situation The
appearance/form of the proposal
Responding to every element exactly as specified by the client
Knowing as much as possible about the proposal recipients
http://www.georgiacenter.uga.edu/is/mr/quiz/checkquiz.phtml
Question # 15 of 15
The extent to which we can generalize the results of a study to other participants is
called
Select correct option:
0 Comments
Sampling validity
External validity
Construct validity
Internal validity
. External validity refers to: the extent to which we can generalize the results of a study to other
populations and settings
STA630 Solved MCQs from Quizzes 2009
Research Methods –STA630
Solved MCQ’s 2009
www.vuzs.info
1. Accepting the information in professor's lecture without asking about the basis of the
information is a reliance on authority.
True
False
2. Intuition and authority can be good sources of ideas.
True
False
3. Applied research is not guided by the theories and findings of basic research.
True
False
4. The statement, "Interviewers rate job applicants more favorably when they are
wearing a pleasant scent than when they have no scent" is an example of:
description of behavior.
prediction of behavior.
explanation of behavior.
www.vuzs.info
5. The statement, "A pleasant scent increases favorability of ratings because the scent
creates a positive emotional state in the interviewer" is an example of:
description of behavior.
prediction of behavior.
explanation of behavior.
6. An empirical test of an idea about behavior must be conducted so the idea can either
be supported or refuted.
True
False
www.vuzs.info
1. A prediction is a statement about the expected relationship between variables
True
False
2. The method section of a research report includes a description of exactly how the
study was designed and conducted.
True
False
3. Which of the following would result in finding more articles when using PsycINFO?.
happiness AND marital satisfaction
happiness OR marital satisfaction
www.vuzs.info
4. You found an important article published in 1990. What resource would you use to
find articles that have cited your article since then?
Psychological Abstracts
PsycINFO
Social Science Citation Index
5. Which of the following is NOT true of theories?
Explain currently known facts.
Rarely change once formulated.
Generate new knowledge.
www.vuzs.info
6. When the results of a study are consistent with a theory, our confidence in the theory
increases.
True
False
7. You are reading a paragraph in a journal article; the topic of the paragraph is the
implications of the results for future research. Which section of the article are you
reading?
Introduction
Results
Discussion
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Asslam O Alikum
STA630- Research Methods mega file 7 final term sure solved papers with reference
6 papers by Muhammad Afaaq & Shani bhai and one paper solved by Afaaq
Remember Me In Your Prayers
Best regard’s
Muhammad Afaaq
Mba 3 rd Finance Group
Afaaq_Tariq@yahoo.com
Islamabad
For latest assignments solved quizzes files gdb solve n unsolved past papers Come
join us in http://vugoogle.com
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0346-5329264
If u like me than raise your hand with me
If not then raise ur standard
That’s about me … !
FINALTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2010
AFAAQ_TARIQ@YAHOO.COM
STA630- Research Methods (Session - 4)
Ref No: 1518507
Time: 90 min
Marks: 69
Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
An inductive logic is one that:
► Involves testing as explicitly defined hypothesis
► Does not allow for findings to feed back into the body of knowledge.
► Uses quantitative methods whenever possible.
► Allows theory to emerge out of the data.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199202959/01student/cqs/ch01/
MCQ # 03
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following research questions is BEST answered using action research?
► How can I improve the interaction of students of different ethnicity in my class?
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381508.cw/index.html
| MCQ # |
3
► What factors influence student interaction in multiethnic classes?
► Is there a difference between male and female acceptance of others in multiethnic
classes?
► How do students from Asian countries adjust to classroom practices in U.S.
schools?
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is characteristic of action research?
► Variables are tightly controlled.
► Results are generalizable.
► Results demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships.
► Data are usually qualitative.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381508.cw/index.html
MCQ # 05
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Research may differ along a series of dimensions. Which of the following may be applied
to this statement?
► The level of manipulation used to elicit data collection.
► The data-collection technique.
► The type of data collected.
► Type, technique and manipulation of data collection.
http://www.uk.sagepub.com/breakwell/downloads/mcq/mcq_01/mcq_01.htm
MCQ # 06
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT a drawback to free response items?
► Results from free response items take longer to analyze.
► Many participants tend not to answer free response items.
► Free response items allow participants to add information that was not directly
requested.
► Many participants tend to be less truthful in free response items.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381582.cw/index.html
MCQ # 15
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is an example of a question about normative standards and
values?
► How many workers are employed at this plant?
► What is your attitude towards the management at this plant?
► Do you always cast your vote in trade union elections?
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch10/
MCQ # 03
| ► Are you aware of the main features of the European Union | Directive for |
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT an example of a problem with using social survey
research to investigate behaviour?
► Respondents tend to answer by giving the most socially desirable answer.
► Respondents may inadvertently omit key terms in the question.
► Respondents may not give an honest reply to what they see as a threatening
question.
► Respondents may be unwilling to reveal information as they believe they
are likely to be identified.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch11/
MCQ # 01
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is an example of a dilemma that might face feminist business
researchers conducting qualitative interviews with women?
► What role to adopt while interviewing male managers?
► How many female employees should be interviewed for a representative sample?
► How to overcome the issue of false consciousness?
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch18/
MCQ # 09
► What data to use while publishing findings?
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT characteristic of qualitative data?
► Rich descriptions
► Concise
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9871/2527149.cw/content/index#
topofquiz1
MCQ # 02
► Voluminous
► Unorganized
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Why is describing the context equally, as important aspect of qualitative data analysis as
is describing the participants?
► Descriptions of context are more objective than descriptions of participants.
► Descriptions of context are based on facts, not perceptions.
► Participants' behavior cannot be separated from the context in which it occurs.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9871/2527206.cw/index.html
MCQ # 04
► Participants are the context.
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which one is not the part of non reactive research?
► Physical traces
► Archives
► Observations
► Interviews
Varieties of Non-Reactive Observations
Physical Traces:
Archives:
Observations:
PAGE 124
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The information gained by someone other than researcher conducting the study is called
.
► Primary data
► Reliable data
► Valid data
► Secondary data
Secondary data refer to information gathered by someone other than the researcher
conducting the present study.
PAGE # 131
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is not an example of historical comparative research?
► Social Forms
► Economic Forms
► Civil Wars
► Turnover
PAGE # 142,143
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following would you recommend to a graduate student to ensure the quality
of his research report?
► Write a detailed explanation of the methods used to investigate the problem.
► Explicitly state underlying assumptions related to the topic.
► Acknowledge the limitations of generalizability while assisting the reader in
understanding the transferability of the findings.
► Detailed method, assumptions and limitation.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381491.cw/index.html
MCQ # 02
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In which of the following Tests, we usually go for personal interviewing to test the
questionnaire?
► Test Run
► Pilot Test
Pilot testing also called pre-testing means small scale trial run of a particular component;
here we are referring to pilot testing of the questionnaire.
PAGE # 80
► Post Hoc Test
► T- Test
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In which of the following Tests, we should come to know, does a questionnaire look like
an integrated unit?
► Test Run
► Pilot Test
PAGE # 80, 81
A pilot plant would be a way of testing the integrated unit, studying its operational
problems, testing design
► Post Hoc Test
► T- Test
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is that element or set of elements considered for selection in some
stage of sampling?
► Parameter
► Sampling Unit
A sampling unit is that element or set of elements considered for selection in some stage
of sampling.
PAGE 89
► Observation Unit
► Statistic
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
If you are going on the street and suddenly a TV reporter starts taking your interview
regarding any issue, which of the following sampling technique is used by the TV
reporter?
► Purposive Sampling
► Snowball Sampling
► Convenience Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling (also called haphazard or accidental sampling) refers to sampling
by obtaining units or people who are most conveniently available. For example, it may be
convenient and economical to sample employees in companies in a nearby area, sample
from a pool of friends and neighbors. The person-on-the street interview conducted by
TV programs is another example. TV interviewers go on the street with camera and
microphone to talk to few people who are convenient to interview. The people walking
past a TV studio in thee middle of the day do not represent everyone (homemakers,
people in the rural areas). Likewise, TV interviewers select people who look “normal” to
them and avoid people who are unattractive, poor, very old, or inarticulate.
PAGE # 90
► Quota Sampling
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Sampling in qualitative research is similar to which type of sampling in quantitative
research?
► Simple random sampling
► Systematic sampling
► Quota sampling
► Purposive sampling
Sampling in qualitative research is similar to which type of sampling in quantitative
research?
It is similar to purposive sampling
http://www.google.com.pk/#sclient=psy&hl=en&biw=800&bih=411&q=Sampling+in+q
ualitative+research+is+similar+to+Purposive+sampling&aq=&aqi=&aql=&oq=&pbx=1
&fp=791244bbdd532714
and Mixed - Chapter 9 ...
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT a type of Non-random sampling?
► Cluster sampling
PAGE # 90, 91, AND 93
► Convenience sampling
► Quota sampling
► Purposive sampling
Question No: 22 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Historical-Comparative researchers sometimes use;
► Time-series data
► Primary data
► Secondary data
Historical-comparative researchers often use secondary sources or different data types in
combination
PAGE # 151
► Analyzed data
Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following refers to the partials replicate or reproduce the same relationship
that existed in the bivariate table before considering the control variable?
► Replication pattern
The replication pattern is the easiest to understand. It is when the partials replicate or
reproduce the same relationship that existed in the bivariate table before considering the
control variable.
AFTER OPEN DA LINK CLICK ON 1ST [DOC] Sampling in Quantitative, Qualitative,
PAGE # 110
► Specification pattern
► Suppressor variable pattern
► Negative linear relationship
Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
As a researcher you need Not to;
► Master the literature
► Take numerous detailed notes
► Create a bibliography list
► Learn your findings
As the researcher masters the literature and takes numerous detailed notes, he or she
completes many specific tasks: creating a bibliography list
PAGE # 147
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following relates with an abstract model of underlying relations or causal
mechanism?
► Analysis
► Synthesis
Synthesis links specific evidence with an abstract model of underlying relations or causal
mechanism.
PAGE # 148
► Results
► Findings
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following control techniques available to the researcher, controls both
known and unknown variables?
► Building the extraneous variable into the design
► Matching
► Random assignment
Random assignment is the most important technique that can be used to control
confounding variables because it has the ability to control for both known and unknown
confounding extraneous variables.
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/lectures/lec9.htm
Constructs in content analysis are operationalizing with a coding system, a set of
instructions or rules on how to systematically observe and record content from text.
Page # 126
► Time Duration
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What is the particular advantage of secondary analysis to business students?
► It is less challenging intellectually
► It guarantees positive results
► It is less expensive and less time consuming than primary
analysis
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch13/
► Analysis of covariance
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is more operational with the help of coding system?
► External Appearance
► Count Behaviors
► Content analysis
MCQ # 02
► It enables students to gain experience of the workplace
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following similarity is found in Qualitative research and Survey research?
► Examine topics primarily from the participants' perspectives
► They are guided by predetermined variables to study.
► They are descriptive research methods.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381582.cw/index.html
MCQ # 03
► Have large sample sizes.
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A single element or group of elements that is eligible for selection via the sampling
process is called a:
► Sampling panel
► Sampling unit
A sampling unit is that element or set of elements considered for selection in some stage
of sampling.
PAGE # 89
► Sampling error
► Sampling quota
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Codes are rules for data.
► Classifying
► Interpreting
► Recording
► All of the given options
ALTHOUGH CODES ARE GENERALLY CONSIDERED TO BE NUMERICAL
SYMBOLS, THEY ARE MORE BROADLY DEFINED AS THE RULES FOR
INTERPRETING, CLASSIFYING, AND RECORDING DATA.
PAGE # 99
Question No: 32 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following contain the captions for the rows of a table?
► Boxheads
► Footnotes
► Source notes
► None of the given options
A table may contain a caption, row groups, and column groups. A row group contains
rows, while a column group contains columns. Rows and columns contain cells. Tables
are rendered as layers in a specified order from the bottom up: table, column groups,
columns, row groups, rows, and cells.
http://reference.sitepoint.com/css/tableformatting
Question No: 33 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The experimental design that uses one-group, a treatment, and a posttest is called
.
► One-shot case study design
One-shot Case Study Design: Also called the one-group posttest-only design, the oneshot case study design has only one group, a treatment, and a posttest
PAGE #117
► Pretest posttest control group design
► Solomon four-group design
► One-group pretest posttest design
Question No: 34 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When a researcher tries to say that the results of a test market in Karachi will hold in a
national rollout of the new product, this researcher is concerned with:
► Internal validity
► The repeated measures effect
► Constant error
► External validity
External validity is the ability to generalize experimental findings to real life situations.
PAGE 122
Question No: 35 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Obtaining secondary data is typically and expensive than obtaining primary
data.
► Faster; more
► Slower; more
► Faster; less
Page # 131
► Slower; less
Question No: 36 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is a disadvantage of secondary data?
► User has no control over their reliability and validity
► Inability to convert the data
► Typically require additional access to research respondents
► All of the given options
Question No: 37 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The study of documents used by writers is a method of .
► In-depth analysis
► Time series analysis
► Regression analysis
► None of the given options
Content analysis is also the study of documents through which the writers try to
communicate, though some of the documents (like population census) may simply
contain figures.
Page # 129
Question No: 38 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Historical-Comparative research focuses on:
► Its broad historical processes
► Comparing forms
► Tracing the development of social forms
► All of the given options
Historical-Comparative research focuses on:
• Tracing the development of social forms (patterns) overtime as well as its broad its
broad historical processes, and
• Comparing those forms and its developmental processes across cultures
(countries/nations).
Page # 142
Question No: 39 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When a manufacturer studies his most successful retailer in depth in order to determine
some better ideas for displaying bicycles in its retail stores, this is an example of:
► An experiment
► A test market
► A case study
Case study: It is an in-depth analysis of a unit which could be an individual person, a
couple, a group, or an organization
PAGE # 38
► Causal research
Question No: 40 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
An interview conducted by a trained moderator among a small group of respondents in an
unstructured and natural manner is a .
► Depth interview
► Focus group
Focus group an interview conducted by a trained moderator among a small group of
respondents in an unstructured and natural manner
http://books.google.com.pk/books?
id=TKb8iORscegC&pg=PA145&lpg=PA145&dq=An+interview+conducted+by+a+train
ed+moderator+among+a+small+group+of+respondents+in+an+unstructured+and+natura
l+manner+is+a+Focus+group&source=bl&ots=xSwXM_YgdX&sig=vsawE2ctZCs4EW
_ajLWVzulC8yY&hl=en&ei=aaVOTZqoKtOChQed3JmDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
q=An%20interview%20conducted%20by%20a%20trained%20moderator%20among
%20a%20small%20group%20of%20respondents%20in%20an%20unstructured%20and
%20natural%20manner%20is%20a%20Focus%20group&f=false
► Case study
► None of the given options
Question No: 41 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following represents this reference: Riley, T., & Brecht, M. L. (1998). The
success in mentoring process. In R. Williams (Ed.) Mentoring and career success. pp.
129-150. New York: Wilson Press.
► Edited book
► Book by a single author
► Book by more than one author
► Chapter in an edited book
Chapter in an edited book
This is an article written by single or multiple authors and is printed in the edited book.
Riley, T., & Brecht, M. L. (1998). The success in mentoring process. In R. Williams
(Ed.) Mentoring and career success. pp. 129-150. New York: Wilson Press.
Page # 165
Question No: 42 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Following are the characteristics of the research EXCEPT:
► Systematic
► Data based
► Subjective approach
Research may be considered as an organized, systematic, data based, critical, objective,
scientific inquiry
Page # 02
► Scientific inquiry
Question No: 43 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A variable that is likely to develop with the passage of time between the independent and
dependent variable is called:
► Moderating Variable
► Intervening Variable
Intervening Variables
A basic causal relationship requires only independent and dependent variable.
Page # 20
► Confounding Variable
► Predictor Variable
Question No: 44 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which type of research is involved in preliminary data collection stage?
► Descriptive
► Exploratory
Preliminary Data Collection
This step may be considered as part of the exploratory research.
Page # 36
► Explanatory
► Cannot be determined at this stage of research
Question No: 45 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which one of the following is NOT a type of scales used in measurement of concepts?
► Normal Scale
It is traditional to classify scales of measurement on the basis of the mathematical
comparisons that are allowable with these scales. Four types of scales are nominal,
ordinal, interval, and ratio.
Page # 53
► Ordinal Scale
► Interval scale
► Ratio Scale
Question No: 46 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A measure is reliable if it provides consistent .
► Hypothesis
► Results
A measure is reliable if it provides consistent results
http://books.google.com.pk/books?
id=Cf1D0DvWXI8C&pg=PA364&lpg=PA364&dq=A+measure+is+reliable+if+it+provi
des+consistent+results&source=bl&ots=lbSOKx-1DA&sig=boaxoP-O26BcJezqkZ-
0El29dOs&hl=en&ei=uKlOTeO9HaOShAeI5ZGBBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=3&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=A%20measure%20is%20reliable
%20if%20it%20provides%20consistent%20results&f=false
► Procedure
► Sensitivity
Question No: 47 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following typically does NOT apply to observers in survey research
studies?
► They observe predetermined activities.
► They are participant observers.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381582.cw/index.html
MCQ # 09
► They obtain information by watching rather than asking.
► They must be careful not to influence the activities they observe.
Question No: 48 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT a longitudinal study?
► Panel study
► Trend study
► Cohort study
► Census study
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381582.cw/index.html
MCQ # 12
Question No: 49 ( Marks: 3 )
Do you think that case studies are empirical? Explain.
Question No: 50 ( Marks: 3 )
How would you differentiate between History Effect and Mechanical Loss in
Experimental research?
Question No: 51 ( Marks: 5 )
Write a note on any three varieties of non reactive observations.
| ExamDate: |
| Center: |
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Question No: 52 ( Marks: 5 )
In research process, once you collect the data, how would you perform the scoring index
activity? Explain it with the help of example.
Question No: 53 ( Marks: 5 )
You want to explore females' cosmetic preferences. How would you prepare focus group
study for this topic?
FINALTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2010
Afaaq_tariq@yahoo.com
STA630- Research Methods (Session - 3)
Time: 90 min
Marks: 69
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Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The part of the action research spiral that differentiates this research methodology from
other kinds of research is;
► Looking at multiple sources of data.
► Taking action based on results.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381555.cw/index.html
| MCQ # | 6 |
► Thinking about or analyzing data in more than one way.
► The kinds of data that are collected.
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
If a researcher was studying the use of various instructional approaches to the "multiple
intelligences" of his students, he is likely to be conducting which of the following type of
research?
► Basic
► Evaluation
► Applied
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9865/2525631.cw/index.html#top
ofquiz1
MCQ # 1
► Grounded theory
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following functions is performed by theoretical framework?
► Elaborates the relationship among the variables.
► Explains the logic underlying these relationships.
► Describes the nature, and direction of the relationships.
► All of the given options.
Specifically a theoretical framework serves the
purpose of:
All of the given option
Elaborates the relationship among the variables
Explains the logic underlying these relationships
Describes the nature, and direction of the relationships
Page # 30
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Panel and cohort designs differ in that:
► Cohort studies involve quantitative research, whereas panel studies are
qualitative.
► A panel study does not need rules to handle new entrants to households.
► Only a cohort study will suffer from sample attrition.
► A panel study can distinguish between age effects and cohort effects, but a
cohort design cannot.
Handouts page # 10
ii. The panel study is a powerful type of longitudinal research. In panel study, the
researcher observes exactly the same people, group, or organization across time periods.
It is a difficult to carry out such study. Tracking people over time is often difficult
because some people die or cannot be located. Nevertheless, the results of a welldesigned panel study are very valuable.
iii. A cohort analysis is similar to the panel study, but rather than observing the exact
same people, a category of people who share a similar life experience in a specified time
period is studied. The focus is on the cohort, or category, not on specific individuals.
Commonly used cohorts include all people born in the same year (called birth cohorts),
all people hired at the same time, all people retire on one or two year time frame, and all
people who graduate in a given year. Unlike panel studies, researchers do not have to
locate the exact same people for cohort studies. The only need to identify those who
experienced a common life event.
And
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199202959/01student/cqs/ch02/?view=za
MCQ # 9
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following would LEAST likely be a data source for an action research study
of "teachers' questioning techniques in social studies classes"?
► Classroom observation
► Student questionnaires
► Videotaping of classes
► Students' standardized test scores
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381508.cw/index.html
| MCQ # |
9
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following represents excellent advice for conducting an interview?
► Listen more and talk less
► Don't interrupt
► Don't be judgmental about the interviewee's beliefs or views
► All of the given options
[PPT]
Qualitative Research Methods
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Why should a business researcher record and transcribe interviews?
► It overcomes all possible ethical considerations.
► The response of participants can be more readily shared with senior management.
► It allows a more thorough examination of what the interviewee has said.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch18/
| MCQ # |
7
► It allows the researcher to demonstrate his/her technical proficiency.
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The Pearson product moment correlation is used to demonstrate the relationship between;
► Two continuous variables
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381655.cw/index.html
MCQ # 11
► Two rank-ordered variables
► Variables that are expected to be curvilinearly related
► Dichotomous variables
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The statistic used to determine the relationship between two variables is:
► Analysis of covariance
► Chi square
► Standard deviation
► Pearson "r"
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381743.cw/index.htmlQuesti
onNo:11
MCQ # 17
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) http://vustudents.ning.com - Please choose one
Researchers organize data into all of the following, EXCEPT:
► Field
► Table
Page # 99
Researchers organize data into fields, records, and files.
► Record
► File
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT a necessary step in conducting experimental research?
► Manipulation of an independent variable
► Selection of measuring instruments
► Creating a hypothesis stating a causal relationship between variables
► Dividing the sample into subgroups to control for extraneous variables
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381867.cw/index.html
MCQ # 02
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Testing most likely, negatively affect internal validity when:
► The information tested is attitudinal in nature
► The time between pre- and posttest is short
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381876.cw/index.html
| MCQ # |
2
► The instrument is unreliable
► The participants are very low scorers
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following questions can be answered using content analysis?
► How do managers behave in the face of employment insecurity?
► How do the media report corporate re-branding exercises?
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch12/
MCQ # 01
► What effect does organizational size have on marketing strategy?
► What are the most popular leisure activities amongst the over-50s?
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which one is not the part of non reactive research?
► Physical traces
► Archives
► Observations
► Interviews
PAGE # 124
Varieties of Non-Reactive Observations
Physical Traces:
Archives:
Observations:
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
On which component of his field notes did Mr. Majid focused when he expressed in his
notes his thoughts and ideas about what he observed?
► Description
► Reflection
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1489/381392.cw/index.html
MCQ # 01
► Protocol
► Formal data
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) http://vustudents.ning.com - Please choose one
Which of the following is linked with an abstract model of underlying relations or causal
mechanism?
► Historical comparative
research PAGE # 148
Synthesis links specific evidence with an abstract model of underlying relations or causal
mechanism.
► Social research
► Action research
► Experimental research
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Historians organize evidence usually in:
► Comparative form
► Narrative form
PAGE # 152
Historians organize evidence as they write works of history. They often write narrative
history.
► Logical form
► Critical form
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What is the difference between a focus group and a group interview?
► A focus group is used to analyse group interaction, whereas a group interview
is used as a straight forward data collection tool.
MCQ # 1
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch19/
► A focus group is used only for political research, whereas group interviews are
more widely used in the social sciences.
► A focus group is used at the planning stage of a research project, whereas a group
interview is part of the actual data collection.
► A focus group is used to discuss a wide range of issues, whereas a group
interview looks at one specific topic.
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In which component of the method section would you find a discussion of validity and
reliability?
► Participants
► Instruments
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1487/380850.cw/site_search_fram
e/index.html
► Design
► Procedures
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following sampling is least reliable but normally the cheapest and easiest to
conduct?
► Purposive Sampling
► Snowball Sampling
► Convenience Sampling
Convenience samples are least reliable but normally the cheapest and easiest to conduct
P # 90
► Quota Sampling
Question No: 22 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following sampling is most often used during the exploratory phase of a
research project and is perhaps the best way of getting some basic information quickly
and efficiently?
► Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling is most often used during the exploratory phase of a research
project and is perhaps the best way of getting some basic information quickly and
efficiently.
P # 90
► Quota Sampling
► Snowball Sampling
► Purposive Sampling
Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 ) http://vustudents.ning.com- Please choose one
Which of the following is a form of Non-random sampling?
► Snowball sampling
► Convenience sampling
► Quota sampling
► All of the given option
PAGE # 90
OR
Nonrandom Sampling Techniques
The other major type of sampling used in quantitative research is nonrandom sampling
(i.e., when you do not use one of the ransom sampling techniques). There are four main
types of nonrandom sampling:
The first type of nonrandom sampling is called convenience sampling
The second type of nonrandom sampling is called quota sampling
The third type of nonrandom sampling is called purposive sampling
The fourth type of nonrandom sampling is called snowball sampling
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/lectures/lec7.htm
OR
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonprobability_sampling
Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Sampling in qualitative research is similar to which type of sampling in quantitative
research?
► Simple random sampling
► Systematic sampling
► Quota sampling
► Purposive
sampling PAGE # 90
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following relates with an abstract model of underlying relations or causal
mechanism?
► Analysis
► Synthesis
Synthesis links specific evidence with an abstract model of underlying relations or causal
mechanism.
PAGE # 148
► Results
► Findings
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The easiest way to describe the numerical data of one variable is;
► Frequency distribution
The easiest way to describe the numerical data of one variable is with a frequency
distribution.
PAGE # 104
► Normal distribution
► Poisson distribution
► Probability distribution
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
All of the following are ways to show a table in percentages, EXCEPT;
► By margins
There are three ways to percentage a table: by row, by column, and for the total.
Page # 107
► By row
► By column
► For the total
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is True for survey research?
► Survey research is a subset of experimental research.
► Survey research is often used in experimental research.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381582.cw/index.html
MCQ # 2
► Survey research is never used in experimental research.
► Survey research is always used in experimental research.
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When an interviewer unintentionally and mistakenly checks the wrong response on a
checklist during an interview, this is an example of:
► Social desirability bias
► Interviewer error
A type of non-sampling error caused by mistakes made by the interviewer These may
include influencing the respondent in some way, asking questions in the wrong order, or
sing slightly different phrasing (or tone of voice) than other interviewers.
► Interviewer cheating
► Sponsorship bias
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When an interviewer asks a respondent: "Why do you shop at Liberty's department
store?” this is an example of a:
► Unstructured question
► Structured question
► Disguised question
► Social desirability question
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
All of the following are stages in the selection of a sample EXCEPT:
► Determine sample size
► Analyze data
Stages in the Selection of a Sample
Step 1: Define the target population
Step 2: Select The Sampling Frame
Step 3: Probability OR Non-probability?
Step 4: Plan Selection of sampling units
Step 5: Determine Sample Size
Step 6: Select Sampling units
Step 7: Conduct Fieldwork
► Conduct fieldwork
► Select a sampling frame
Question No: 32 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Codes are rules for data.
► Classifying
► Interpreting
► Recording
► All of the given options
Although codes are generally considered to be numerical symbols, they are more broadly
defined as the rules for interpreting, classifying, and recording data
PAGE # 99
Question No: 33 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When a competitor introduces a 25% price cut in order to blunt the effect of a test
marketing study, this is an example of a:
► Maturation
effect PAGE 120
Maturation Effect: Cause and effect relationship can also be contaminated by the effects
of the passage of time – another uncontrollable variable. Such contamination is called
Maturation effect.
► Testing effect
► History effect
► Cohort effect
Question No: 34 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
All of the following elements of Observation is/are included in Non Reactive research
EXCEPT:
► Count Behaviors
► Time Duration
► External Appearance
► Other Records
PAGE # 124
Observations:
• External Appearance: How people appear may indicate social factors. For example,
researcher watches students to see whether they are more likely to wear their college’s
colors and symbols after the college team won or lost.
• Count Behaviors: Counting how many people do something can be informative. For
example researcher may count the number of men and women who come to a full stop
and those who come to a rolling stop at a traffic stop sign. This suggests gender
difference in driving behavior.
• Time Duration: How long people take to do things may indicate their intention. For
example
a researcher may measure how long men and women pause in front of a particular
painting.
Time taken may indicate their interest in the painting.
Question No: 35 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following element is not included for behavioral observation?
► Space
► Direction
► Frequency
► Accretion
PAGE # 126
Question No: 36 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The study of documents used by writers is a method of .
► In-depth analysis
► Time series analysis
► Regression analysis
► None of the given options
Content analysis is also the study of documents through which the writers try to
communicate, though some of the documents (like population census) may simply
contain figures.
Page # 129
Question No: 37 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When a manufacturer studies his most successful retailer in depth in order to determine
some better ideas for displaying bicycles in its retail stores, this is an example of:
► An experiment
► A test market
► A case study
Case study: It is an in-depth analysis of a unit which could be an individual person, a
couple, a group, or an organization
PAGE # 38
► Causal research
Question No: 38 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The written set of guidelines that describes an outline of topics to be covered by a focus
group moderator is called a:
► Discussion
guide PAGE 155
OR
A detailed written outline of topics the moderator will cover during a focus group
discussion.
► Concept test
► Case study
► All of the given options
Question No: 39 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is a disadvantage of focus groups?
► Requires objective, sensitive, and effective moderators
► May not be useful for discussing sensitive topics
► High cost
► All of the given options
Disadvantages of Focus Groups
Require objective, sensitive, and effective moderators.
May have unique sampling problems.
May not be useful for discussing sensitive topics in face-to-face situations.
Cost a considerable amount of money, particularly when they are not
conducted by someone employed by the company desiring the focus group.
Higher cost
Question No: 40 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which section of a report gives a summary of the contents, including the purpose,
description of the participants, the results, and any conclusions being offered?
► Methodology
► Introduction
► Abstract
An abstract is a summary of a body of information. Sometimes, abstracts are in fact
called summaries—sometimes, executive summaries or executive abstracts. There are
different kinds of abstracts—your technical report uses two types: the descriptive abstract
and the informative abstract.
OR HANDOUTS PAGE 161
► Letter of transmittal
Question No: 41 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following characteristic of the scientific method is defined as the
confirmation or refutation of the observation through the scientific method by using
sensory experience?
► Empirical
► Verifiable
Verifiable
Observations made through scientific method are to be verified again by using the senses
to confirm or refute the previous findings
PAGE # 04
► Observable
► Cumulative
Question No: 42 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Basic research can also be called as
► Practical research
► Fundamental Research
Basic research (also called academic research or pure research or fundamental research).
PAGE # 08
► Action research
► Assessment research
Question No: 43 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statement is true about the peer review?
► Name of the article's author is not mentioned to avoid biases
► It should be accepted
► It should be published in a well known journal
► Name of the author should be mentioned for the further correspondence
Question No: 44 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
After making the inventory of the relevant variables the next step is to:
► Provide logic for the relationship
► Make inventory of the propositions
► Identify the relationships between the variables
In the discussions the relevant variables are identified, and relationships are postulated.
Once the variables are identified, the same focus group discussions help in the
formulation of questions, along with the response categories, for the measurement of
variables.
PAGE # 156
► Deduce hypothesis
Question No: 45 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Theoretical framework helps to:
► Deduce the hypothesis
► Reject the hypothesis
► Test the hypothesis
From the theoretical framework, then, testable hypotheses can be developed to examine
whether theory formulated is valid or not. The hypothesized relationships can thereafter
be tested through appropriate statistical analysis.
PAGE # 30
► Accept the hypothesis
Question No: 46 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT a method of narrowing a topic?
► Literature review
► Specifying the context
► Talk to the experts
► Pilot testing
Techniques for Narrowing a Topic into a Research Question
1. Examine the literature.
2. Talk over ideas with others.
3. Apply to a specific context.
4. Define the aim or desired outcome of the study.
PAGE # 33
Question No: 47 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The working definition of the variables is called:
► Theoretical definition
► Dictionary definition
► Operational definition
Operational definition is also called a working definition stated in terms of specific
testing or measurement criteria.
PAGE # 18
► Fundamental definition
Question No: 48 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following characteristic is reflected by an interval scale?
► The distance between each participant's individual scores.
► Arithematic operations can be performed after data collection
► Classify the data into exclusive categories
► All of the given options
http://books.google.com/books?
id=eNsVUGTMcDoC&pg=PA138&dq=characteristic+is+reflected+by+an+interval+scal
e&hl=en&ei=pD5mTJH9MojRcfiPva0P&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&
ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=characteristic%20is%20reflected%20by%20an
%20interval%20scale&f=false
Question No: 49 ( Marks: 3 )
What is the logic of field research? How does a field researcher work?
Question No: 50 ( Marks: 3 )
Historical-Comparative research focuses on some factors, list down those factors?
Question No: 51 ( Marks: 5 )
Briefly describe the type of observation you would use, the field notes you would
develop, and some general principles you would follow to ensure successful data
collection.
Question No: 52 ( Marks: 5 )
What are the functions of a recorder? http://vustudents.ning.com
Question No: 53 ( Marks: 5 )
Briefly discuss the importance of Data Transformation in Research with the help of
example?
FINALTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2009
AFAAQ_TARIQ@YAHOO.COM
STA630- Research Methods (Session - 1)
Marks: 80
Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT an assumption of action research?
Action researchers have basic research skills to collect and analyze data.
All professionals need and want feedback on their performance.
Results enable the researchers to evaluate the performance of others.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381508.cw/index.html
MCQ # 06
Teachers are capable of assuming responsibility for their own professional growth.
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements it TRUE for operational definition?
It is one that bears no relation to the underlying concept.
It is an abstract, theoretical definition of a concept
A definition of a concept in terms of specific and empirical measures
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199202959/01student/cqs/ch06/
MCQ # 01
HANDOUTS PAGE # 18 & 50
It is one that refers to opera singers and their work.
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements best defines hypothesis?
A quantitative study
A tentative prediction of the results of the research
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9865/2525651.cw/content/index
MCQ @ 24
A qualitative research design
The operational definition of the study
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When the research starts from the effects and tracing the reasons back in time, what does
it called?
Case study
It is more like a clinical analysis in retrospect; starting from the effect and tracing the
reasons back in time. The researcher takes the history of the situation and makes use of
any other relevant information about the case to identify the factors leading to the present
situation
Page # 38
Experiment
Observation studies
Historical comparitive research
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The extent to which a test provides scores that are meaningful, appropriate, or useful is
referred to as;
Reliability
Accuracy
Internal validity
Validity
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9866/2525945.cw/content/index
MCQ # 18
HANDOUTS PAGE # 55
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Mr. Hasan s son has applied to a high school in Florida, but the application was denied
solely on his low score on the Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS). His son wants to attend
this school and contends his current grades and other standardized test scores speak well
to both his past work and future academic capability. Which of the following
characteristics of the ITBS is being questioned by this student?
Construct validity
Content validity
Predictive validity
Predictive validity:
Criterion validity whereby an indicator predicts future events that are logically related to
a construct is called a predictive validity.
PAGE # 56
Concurrent validity
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Internal consistency estimates of reliability such as the KR-20 or Cronbach's alpha are
used more frequently than other estimates such as test-retest or parallel forms because
internal consistency estimates;
Are easily calculated
Require only one administration of a test
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1489/381232.cw/index.html
MCQ # 05
Are more accurate than all other types of estimates
Are usually higher
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following functions is performed by the Odinal scale?
Categorize
Distance
Order
Ordinal Scale
Ordinal scales include the characteristics of the nominal scale plus an indicator of order.
PAGE # 53
Unique origin
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is measured by the Interval scale?
Order of the object
Magnitude of the object
Categorize the object
All of the given options
On interval measurement scales, one unit on the scale represents the same magnitude on
the trait or characteristic being measured across the whole range of the scale.
OR HANDOUTS PAGE # 53
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Following are the properties of nominal scale, except;
Least powerful
Suggest no order
Provide categorical information
Provide magnitude of object
Nominal Scale
A nominal scale is the one in which the numbers or letters assigned to objects serve as
labels for identification or classification. This measurement scale is the simplest type.
With nominal data, we are collecting information on a variable that naturally or by design
can be grouped into two or more categories that are mutually exclusive, and collectively
exhaustive.
Nominal scales are the least powerful of the four scales. They suggest no order or
distance relationship and have no arithmetic origin. Nevertheless, if no other scale can be
used, one can almost always one set of properties into a set of equivalent classes.
PAGE # 53
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What is the difference between interval/ratio and ordinal variables?
Ordinal data can be rank ordered, but interval/ratio data cannot.
The distance between categories is equal across the range of interval/ration data.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199202959/01student/cqs/ch14/
MCQ # 01
Interval/ratio variables contain only two categories.
Ordinal variables have a fixed zero point, whereas interval/ratio variables do not.
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A study design in which the researcher might create to establish cause-and-effect
relationship is called Experimental Design.
An artificial setting, control some variables and manipulates the independent variable
A natural setting, control some variables and manipulates the dependent variables
An artificial setting, control some variables and manipulates the dependent variable
All of the given options
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following would LEAST likely be a data source for an action research study
of "teachers' questioning techniques in social studies classes"?
Student questionnaires
Videotaping of classes
Students' standardized test scores
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381508.cw/index.html
MCQ # 09
Classroom observation
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Teachers are advised to predict the results of student attitudinal questionnaires, because;
It will help them decide if students answered truthfully.
It gives them a point of comparison against which to judge actual responses.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381508.cw/index.html
MCQ # 10
It will allow them to apply statistical procedures in analyzing results.
It helps them familiarize themselves with the questionnaires.
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is an example of a question about normative standards and
values?
How many workers are employed at this plant?
What is your attitude towards the management at this plant?
Do you always cast your vote in trade union elections?
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch10/
MCQ # 03
Are you aware of the main features of the European Union Directive for informing and
consulting employees?
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Questions that include negatives should be avoided because:
The respondent may miss out the negative word.
The respondent may be unsure how to answer if the question includes a double negative.
The respondent may be led by the question.
All of the given options.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/
OR
When using a Likert scale it can be difficult to avoid asking a question with a negative,
however the researcher should attempt to avoid them if possible.
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Random assignment to treatment groups is characteristic of which kind of research?
Causal-comparative
Correlational
Experimental
PAGE # 114
OR
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381743.cw/index.html
MCQ # 05
Descriptive
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is likely to happen if clear instructions are not given as to how the
respondent should answer the question?
Respondents may delete inappropriate answers rather than select appropriate ones.
Respondents may choose only one answer when they need to choose as many as apply.
Respondents may complete questions that are not relevant to them.
All of the given options
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch09/
MCQ # 07
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT an example of a problem with using social survey
research to investigate behaviour?
Respondents tend to answer by giving the most socially desirable answer.
Respondents may inadvertently omit key terms in the question.
Respondents may not give an honest reply to what they see as a threatening question.
Respondents may be unwilling to reveal information as they believe they are likely to be
identified.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch11/
MCQ # 01
OR
An advantage of social survey research is that the researcher can ensure that the
anonymity of the respondent is maintained by administering the same questions to each
individual.
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What is the main purpose of pilot testing?
To accumulate responses
To identify respondent
To identify potential problems
Pilot testing is to identify potential problems with the methods, logistics, and the
questionnaire.
PAGE # 80
To evaluate the research
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following sampling strategies was used when the three students with the
highest GPAs were selected?
Extreme case
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1489/381384.cw/index.html
MCQ # 02
Snowball
Maximum variation
Normal case.
Question No: 22 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following best describes qualitative data analysis?
It begins after all the data has been collected.
It is an ongoing, cyclic process integrated into all phases of research.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9871/2527149.cw/content/index.
html
MCQ # 05
It is an awkward, haphazard process.
It builds from abstraction to specific, concrete examples
Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following represents the most general conceptualization in qualitative data
analysis?
Word
Topic
Category
Pattern
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381483.cw/index.html
MCQ # 01
Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The control procedure that allows the researcher to determine the effect of the
independent variable and the control variable on the dependent variable both separately
and in combination is;
Analysis of covariance
Matching
Forming subgroups to represent all levels of the control variable
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381743.cw/index.htmlQuesti
onNo:11
MCQ # 08
Randomization
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following could NOT be a cause of variation in high school achievement?
Reading ability
Parental involvement
Teacher expectations
College attendance
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381743.cw/index.htmlQuesti
onNo:11
MCQ # 11
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In experimental research, what does a researcher manipulate?
At least one dependent variable
All variables
At least one independent variable
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381820.cw/index.html
MCQ # 01
OR
http://books.google.com.pk/books?
id=j09b2rTVRsAC&pg=PA20&lpg#v=onepage&q&f=false
At least one independent variable and one dependent variable
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In an experimental study, "the effects of inclusion on academic self-concept of children
with special needs", the researcher must control which of the following?
The selection of subjects but not their assignment to a treatment group
The selection and assignment of subjects
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381820.cw/index.html
MCQ # 04
The assignment of subjects to a treatment group but not their selection
Neither the selection nor assignment of subjects
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Ecological validity refers to:
The participants to whom results generalize
The instruments used to measure the independent and dependent variables
The internal validity of a study
The context to which results generalize
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9869/2526465.cw/index.html
MCQ # 01
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Many beginner researchers believe that research involves testing, treating, and testing
again . This is an example of:
Comparison group research
Quasi-experimental research
True experimental research
Pre-experimental research
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381820.cw/index.html
MCQ # 15
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Single-subject research is LEAST concerned with:
Clinical significance
Internal validity
Validity of measuring instruments
External validity
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381820.cw/index.html
MCQ # 18
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
On which component of his field notes did Mr. Majid focused when he expressed in his
notes his thoughts and ideas about what he observed?
Description
Reflection
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1487/380850.cw/site_search_fram
e/index.html
Protocol
Formal data
Question No: 32 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In which section is the researcher allowed greater flexibility to express opinions, discuss
implications for educational practice, and suggest additional research?
Review of the literature
Significance of the study
Results
Discussion
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1492/382157.cw/index.html
MCQ # 07
Question No: 33 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Determining the sample interval (represented by K), randomly selecting a number
between 1 to K, and including each K element in your sample are the steps for which
form of sampling?
Simple Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling
Simple or stratified in nature
Systematic in the “picking-up” of element. E.g. every 5th. visitor, every 10th. House,
every 15th. minute
Steps:
* Number the population (1,…,N)
* Decide on the sample size, n
* Decide on the interval size, k = N/n
* Select an integer between 1 and k
* Take case for every kth.
unit Cluster sampling
Question No: 34 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A focus group session is ideally for;
1 hour
1 and half hour
Duration, a focus group session typically lasts up to an hour and a half.
PAGE # 155
2 hours
More than 2 hours
Question No: 35 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In an experimental research study, the primary goal is to isolate and identify the effect
produced by which of the following?
Dependent variable
Extraneous variable
Independent variable
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc9.htm
MCQ # 23
Confounding variable
Question No: 36 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the process of identifying and classifying each item and giving
labels to each category?
Accretion
Count Behaviors
Intensity
Coding
Coding
The process of identifying and classifying each item and giving labels to each category.
PAGE # 126
Question No: 37 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When do largest percentages form a pattern across cells?
If there is no relationship
If there is non linear relationship
If there is curvilinear relationship
Curvilinear relationship, the largest percentages form a pattern across cells.
PAGE # 107
If there is linear relationship
Question No: 38 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following elements is/are not included for structuring Observation in Non
reactive research?
Frequency
Intensity
Direction
Accretion
Observations can be structured
Frequency:
Direction:
Intensity:
Space:
PAGE # 126
Question No: 39 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A census taker often collects data through which of the following?
Standardized tests
Interviews
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc6.htm
MCQ # 20
Secondary data
Observations
Question No: 40 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What is the particular advantage of secondary analysis to business students?
It is less challenging intellectually
It guarantees positive results
It is less expensive and less time consuming than primary analysis
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch13/
MCQ # 02
It enables students to gain experience of the workplace
Question No: 41 ( Marks: 5 )
Defend the use of the term inductive to describe qualitative data analysis and
interpretation.
Question No: 42 ( Marks: 5 )
What are the main parts of a research report?
Question No: 43 ( Marks: 10 )
Many universities do not allow their students to conduct experimental research to fulfil
thesis or dissertation requirements. Provide a rationale for changing this practice,
acknowledging the limitations of experimental research, but also citing at least three
reasons that action research should be accepted.
Question No: 44 ( Marks: 10 )
A multination company ABC has launched a new tooth paste Cleanex in Pakistan.
After eight months the company wants to analyze the consumer satisfaction about their
tooth paste. For research purpose, develop questions for the following scenarios that can
be used in questionnaire.
See the consumer preference for tooth paste or tooth powder by using nominal scale.
i. See the consumer preference for Cleanex Tooth Paste by using ordinal scale.
ii. See the important characteristics of the Cleanex Tooth Paste by using interval scale so
that the company can modify its strengths and improve its weaknesses.
iii. Check the monthly consumption of the tooth paste by using the ratio scale.
Question No: 45 ( Marks: 10 )
What is the need of a trivariate table? How can we construct trivariate table and what
FINALTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2009
AFAAQ_TARIQ@YAHOO.COM
STA630- Research Methods
Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
An experiment has high if one has confidence that the experimental treatment has
been the source of change in the dependent variable.
Internal validity
http://www.blurtit.com/q346633.html
External validity
Internal and external validity
Internal and external reliability
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
is the arbitrary and subjective.
Probability sampling
Non- Probability sampling
The selection of units in non-probability sampling is quite arbitrary
PAGE # 90
Cluster sampling
All of the given options
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Stages of an Interview
Asking the Questions
Probing
Recording the Responses
Page # 83 & 84
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Critical decision areas in questionnaire construction are
Question content
Question wording
Response strategy
All of the given options
http://books.google.com.pk/books?
id=Cf1D0DvWXI8C&pg=PA336&lpg=PA336&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
is based on the concept of random sampling.
Non- probability sampling
Probability sampling
The simple random is the best known probability sample,
PAGE # 90
Random sampling
Multiple sampling
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A sampling design in which the elements in the population do NOT have a known or
predetermined chance of being selected as sample subject is:
Convenience sampling
Stratified sampling
Non-Probability sampling
http://www.slidefinder.net/s/sampling_sample_design_jn602_week/5349303
SLIDE # 09
OR
In non-probability sampling the probability of any particular element of the population
being chosen is unknown.
PAGE # 90
Probability sampling
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
is the population for which results are required.
Finite population
Infinite population
Target population
Page # 88
OR
http://www.ehes.info/manuals/EHES_manual/PartA/EHES_Manual_PartA_Chapter2.pdf
None of the given options
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following technique yields a simple random sample?
Choosing volunteers from an introductory psychology class to participate
Listing the individuals by ethnic group and choosing a proportion from within each
ethnic group at random
Numbering all the elements of a sampling frame and then using a random number table to
pick cases from the table
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc7.htm
MCQ # 02
Randomly selecting schools, and then sampling everyone within the school
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following designs permits a comparison of pretest scores to determine the
initial equivalence of groups on the pretest before the treatment variable is introduced
into the research setting.
(a) One-group pretest-posttest design
(b) Pretest-posttest control group design
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc9.htm
MCQ # 09
(c) Posttest-only design with nonequivalent groups
(d) Both b and c
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Where do you provide a step-by-step account of what the researcher and participants did
during the research study?
Introduction
Abstract
Procedure
Procedure: The procedure includes the step-by-step how of your experiment. The
procedure should include:
• A description of the experimental design and how participants were
assigned conditions.
• Identification of your independent variable(s) (IV), dependent variable(s)
(DV), and control variables. Give your variables clear, meaningful names so
that your readers are not confused.
• Important instructions to participants.
• A step-by-step listing in chronological order of what participants did
during the experiment.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/670/04/
Design
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following has high response rate?
Mail interviewing
Telephone interviewing
Personal interviewing
http://books.google.com.pk/books?
id=FqF7n0zGJm0C&pg=PA380&lpg=PA380&#v=onepage&q&f=false
None of the given options
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Observation studies are also known as research.
Experimental
Field
OBSERVATION STUDIES/FIELD RESEARCH
PAGE 134
Quantitative
None of the given options
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Open-ended questions provide primarily data.
Unprocessed data
Qualitative data
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc6.htm
MCQ # 11
All of the given options
None of the given options
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which one of the following is NOT a major method of data collection:
Questionnaires
Interviews
Focus groups
2ND PARAGRAPH
All of the given options are methods of data collection
Data collection forms (questionnaires, checklist, interview guide, other forms)
PAGE # 35
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statement is incorrect?
In non participant observation the observer is just an observer.
In participant observation, the data accuracy is high.
Observation studies can be participant or non-participant. In participant observation the
researcher directly observes and participates in small scale social settings in the present
time.
PAGE # 134
Participant observation is also referred to as field research.
None of the given options
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
If the subjects are given a pretest it will not affect their performance in the posttest.
True
False
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In non- reactive research the subjects do not have knowledge that they are being studied.
True
In non-reactive research, those being studied are not aware that they are part of a research
project.
Page # 124
False
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In experimental group the subjects do not under go any treatment; however in control
group the subjects are given the treatment.
True
False
Page # 114
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When multiple questions are asked in one question, it leads to ambiguous answers
provided by the respondents.
True
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_choice
OR
Page # 78
Avoid Double-Barreled Questions
Make each question about one and only one. A double barreled question consists of two
or more questions joined together. It makes the respondent’s answer ambiguous. For
example, if asked, “Does this company have pension and health insurance benefits?” a
respondent at the company with health insurance benefits only might answer either yes or
no. The response has an ambiguous meaning and the researcher cannot be certain of the
respondent’s intentions. When multiple questions are asked in one question, thee results
may be exceedingly difficult to interpret.
False
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
An advantage of communication analysis is that it provides access to the inaccessible
subjects.
True
False
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 )
Pretest is the phase when the variable is measured prior to the introduction of
treatment.
Question No: 22 ( Marks: 1 )
If the percentages are calculated column wise in a table, then we will make comparison
between the variables in a_frequency_.
Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 )
In order to make two identical groups for experiment, the procedures to be undertaken are
randomization and matching.
Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 )
The main advantage of _mail _questionnaire is that a wide geographical area can be
covered in the survey.
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 )
A type of bias in questions occurs when they are phrased in an emotionally charged
manner, they are described as Loaded questions.
Page No.78
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 5 )
Make one hypothesis for each of the following types of hypotheses. (1 mark each)
i. If-then hypothesis
ii. Directional hypothesis
iii. Non directional hypothesis
iv. Null hypothesis
v. Alternative hypothesis
Answer:
i- If-then hypothesis:
If there is increase in cost there is decrease in profit.
ii. Directional hypothesis:
Increase in absentieesm causes a decrease in productivity level of employees.
iii. Non directional hypothesis:
Productivity level of employees is associated with rate of absenteeism.
iv. Null hypothesis:
There is no association between level of productivity and absenteeism.
v. Alternative hypothesis :
There is a relationship between level of job commitment of officers and their level
of efficiency.
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 5 )
Which is the most powerful scale among Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio scale, and
why?
Answer:
The highest level of measurement is a ratio scale. This has the properties of an interval
scale together with a fixed origin or zero point. Examples of variables which are ratio
scaled include weights, lengths and times. Ratio scales permit the researcher to compare
both differences in scores and the relative magnitude of scores. For instance the
difference between 5 and 10 minutes is the same as that between 10 and 15 minutes, and
10 minutes is twice as long as 5 minutes. Suffice it to say that virtually all statistical
operations can be performed on ratio scales.
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 5 )
A manager finds that off-the-job classroom training has a great impact on the
productivity of the employees in her department. However, she also observes that
employees over 60 years of age do not seem to derive much benefit and do not improve
with such training.
i. Identify the independent, dependent and moderating variables in the given scenario. (3)
Answer:
Inependent Variable: Off-the-job classroom training
Dependent Variable: Employees performance
Moedrating Variable: Employees age over 60 years
ii. How the moderating variable you identified in part (i) is affecting the independentdependent variable relationship in the scenario? (2)
Answer:
The moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent effect on the independent
variable and dependent variable relationship. That is the presence of a third variable
modifies the original relationship between the independent and the dependent variable
In the scenario above employees age over 60 years is acting as moderating variable
because it is the variable which affects the relationship of employees
performance (dependent variable) and off-the-job classrom training (independent
variable).which was positive in above case but age over 60 years reduces the positivity .
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 5 )
The accounts executive has established a new accounting system that utilizes maximum
computer technology. Before making further changes, he would like to get a feel for how
the accounting clerks react to the new system by acting as if he has no doubts about their
acceptability of the new system. He may then casually talk to the first five accounting
personnel that walk into his office, trying to gauge their reactions.
i. Describe the type of sampling the director should use in the
given scenario, probability or non probability? (1)
Answer:
Director should use probability sampling as probability sampling is the technique in
which some known elements of population participated in order to provide useful
descriptions.
| ii. | What type of sampling technique is being used and why? |
Answer:
Director should use probability sampling as probability sampling is the technique in
which some known elements of population participated in order to provide useful
descriptions.
iii. Give two characteristics of the type of sampling technique that
you selected in part (ii).
Answer:
Two characteristics of probability sampling:
| 1- | Random sampling lets a researcher statistically calculate the relationship |
| between the sample and the population – that is the size of sampling error | |
| 2- | All possible samples have a known and specified probability of being |
drawn.
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 5 )
You are doing research on “how to increase the efficiency level of labor”. For the
research purpose you have conducted an interview with the supervisor.
Give two structured and two unstructured questions that you may ask related to your
research. (2.5+2.5)
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 10 )
What is meant by validity and reliability? Describe the situations in which validity and
reliability problems occur.
for more contents visit
FINALTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2009
AFAAQ_TARIQ@YAHOO.COM
STA630- Research Methods (Session - 2)
Marks: 80
Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Who, among the following, wrote the book "Research Methods for Business"?
Zikmund, W.
Sekaran, U.
Research Methods For Business (A Skill Building Approach), 4E by Sekaran U.
Dessler, G.
Neuman, W.C.
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
On which of the following, Scientific knowledge mostly relies?
Identification of events
Logical understanding
Prior knowledge
All of the given options
PAGE # 04
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following refers to research supported by measurable evidence?
Opinion
Speculation
Empiricism
PAGE # 03
Rationalism
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
All of the following are true statements about action research EXCEPT;
Data are systematically analyzed.
Data are collected systematically.
Results are generalizable.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381508.cw/index.html
MCQ # 02
Results are used to improve practice.
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
If a researcher is studying the effect of using laptops in his classroom to ascertain their
merit and worth, he is likely conducting which of the following types of research?
Evaluation
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9865/2525631.cw/index.html
MCQ # 02
Experimental
Applied
Basic
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What is the problem with using strict definitions of important concepts?
They take the focus away from accurate measurement.
They prevent the researcher from assessing alternative ways of viewing a concept.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch16/
MCQ # 03
They prevent a consistent approach being achieved with business research.
They prevent research from being truly objective.
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A variable that is presumed to cause a change in another variable is known as:
Discontinuous variable
Dependent variable
Independent variable
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc2.htm
MCQ # 05
Intervening variable
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the difference between measures and indicators?
Measures are unambiguous quantities, whereas indicators are devised from
common sense understandings.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199202959/01student/cqs/ch06/
MCQ # 03
OR
Measures include things like demographics (of age, income and so on), which can be
counted. In fact, usually we think of measures as raw numbers. Often though, what we
want to research does not lend itself immediately to straightforward calculation on
numbers of things and how they vary but on slightly vaguer concepts. Like job
satisfaction, for example. In this case we need a number of attitude statements, which,
taken together, can be argued to represent the concept. These separate statements are
indicators and often represent our 'common sense' understanding of a concept. Later,
these can be coded to turn them into numbers for statistical analysis.
Indicators have a more direct relationship to the underlying concept than measures.
Measures are intuitively devised and then applied as if they were direct indicators of a
concept.
Indicators are unambiguous quantities, whereas measures are subjective and value laden.
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT the implication of Ordinal scale?
Characteristics of nominal scale
Rank the object
Does not provide magnitude of object
Provide rate
PAGE # 53
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Measurement reliability refers to which of the following?
Accuracy of the scores
Dependency of the scores
Consistency of the scores
Comprehensiveness of the scores
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements might assist response rates?
Please photocopy the questionnaire five times and pass on to your work colleagues.
Please make sure that the questionnaire is completed with a fountain pen.
Please read the attached journal article on the ontological foundations of positivism prior
to completing the questionnaire.
Please put the completed questionnaire in the enclosed stamped addressed envelope and
place in the mail out tray.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch09/
MCQ # 03
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Why it is important to avoid ambiguous terms while designing questions?
Respondents may not understand the question.
Respondents may operate with a different frame of reference.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch10/
MCQ # 05
Respondents may think the question is less important.
Respondents may have to ask for help when completing the questionnaire.
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is a double-barrelled question?
How satisfied you are with the performance appraisal system?
How satisfied you are with investment levels in new and existing software packages?
A double barreled question consists of two or more questions joined together. It makes
the respondent’s answer ambiguous. For example, if asked, “Does this company have
pension and health insurance benefits?” a respondent at the company with health
insurance benefits only might answer either yes or no.
PAGE # 78
How satisfied you are with the organisation's marketing strategy?
How satisfied you are with the levels of customer satisfaction?
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The small scale trial run of a particular item is called .
Test Run
Pilot test
Pilot testing also called pre-testing means small scale trial run of a particular component;
here we are referring to pilot testing of the questionnaire.
PAGE # 80
Post hoc test
T test
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following terms describes an interview protocol in which the topics and
questions to be addressed are identified, but the order in which the questions can be asked
is not stipulated?
Unstructured
Partially structured
Semistructured
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9870/2526923.cw/content/index
MCQ # 14
Structured
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The most important characteristic of the sample in survey research is that it is:
Representative of the target population.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381619.cw/index.html
MCQ # 04
OR
Usually, the population is too large for the researcher to attempt to survey all of its
members. A small, but carefully chosen sample can be used to represent the population.
The sample reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.
Convenient to access.
Easily observed in naturalistic settings.
Large enough to compare differences between subgroups.
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT something a researcher will have to consider while
thinking about their sample size?
Time and cost.
Non-response.
Length of questionnaire
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch07/
MCQ # 05
OR
In general bigger is better when considering sample size however all researchers need to
be aware of the limitations of their resources.
Heterogeneity of population.
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A correlation coefficient of -0.45 is generally considered to be;
No correlation
Low
Moderate
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MCQ # 06
High
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What is a researcher doing when he removes the variance explained by one variable in
order to understand the correlation between two other variables?
Statistical significance
Attenuation
Controlling for the variable
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381655.cw/index.html
MCQ # 10
Multiple regression research
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following best describes qualitative data analysis?
It begins after all the data has been collected.
It is an ongoing, cyclic process integrated into all phases of research.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9871/2527149.cw/content/index
MCQ # 05
It is an awkward, haphazard process.
It builds from abstraction to specific, concrete examples.
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The statistic used to determine the relationship between two variables is:
Analysis of covariance
Chi square
Standard deviation
Pearson "r"
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381743.cw/index.htmlQuesti
onNo:22
MCQ # 17
Question No: 22 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following describes the nature of qualitative data interpretation?
Reflection
Integrative
Explanatory
All of the given options
http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/grader
Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In frequency tables total of columns and rows are called:
Body of table
Cell of table
Area of table
Marginals
Include the totals of the columns and rows. These are called marginals They equal the
nivariate frequency distribution for the variable.
Page #107
Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A researcher studies three groups of students who vary in level of self-confidence. She
finds that students with higher self-confidence are more popular among their peers. The
most plausible conclusion is that
We do not know what causes self-confidence or popularity.
Self-confidence causes popularity.
Popularity causes self-confidence.
Self-confidence and popularity are related.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381743.cw/index.ht
MCQ # 07
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Educational policy makers often conclude that an intervention didn't work. Often,
however, the intervention was not implemented as intended. The validity of
the policymakers' conclusion is threatened by
Lack of specificity of variables
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9869/2526465.cw/index.html
MCQ # 05
Selection-treatment interaction
Treatment diffusion
Faulty data analysis procedures
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Many beginner researchers believe that research involves testing, treating, and testing
again is an example of:
Comparison group research
Quasi-experimental research
True experimental research
Pre-experimental research
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381886.cw/index.html
MCQ #02
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following questions can be answered using content analysis?
How do managers behave in the face of employment insecurity?
How do the media report corporate re-branding exercises?
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch12/
MCQ # 01
What effect does organizational size have on marketing strategy?
What are the most popular leisure activities amongst the over-50s?
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Case study is empirical because;
It investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context.
It is retrospective study in which the researcher follows the research process from effect
to its cause.
It is a study back in time.
All of the given options
It investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context. It is retrospective
study n which the researcher follows the research process from effect to its cause. It is a
study back in time
PAGE # 158
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which component of a research report contains information about the topic studied,
iterature review, hypotheses, participants, instruments, procedures, results, and
discussion?
Preliminary pages
Main body
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9872/2527359.cw/index.html
MCQ03
Method
Discussion
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which one of the following Test helps in the proper sequence of the questions as
wording, translation, coding and structuring?
Test Run
Pre Test
Pre-testing may help in putting questions in proper sequence, using acceptable wording,
doing appropriate translation, question spacing, structuring of answers, coding system,
and needing instructions for interviewers (probing).
PAGE # 81
Post Hoc Test
T- Test
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following sampling is least reliable but normally the cheapest and easiest to
conduct?
Purposive Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Convenience samples are least reliable but normally the cheapest and easiest to conduct.
PAGE # 90
Quota Sampling
Question No: 32 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is a form of Non-random sampling?
Snowball sampling
Convenience sampling
Quota sampling
All of the given option
PAGE # 90
OR
Nonrandom Sampling Techniques
The other major type of sampling used in quantitative research is nonrandom sampling
(i.e., when you do not use one of the ransom sampling techniques). There are four main
types of nonrandom sampling:
The first type of nonrandom sampling is called convenience sampling
The second type of nonrandom sampling is called quota sampling
The third type of nonrandom sampling is called purposive sampling
The fourth type of nonrandom sampling is called snowball sampling
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/lectures/lec7.htm
OR
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonprobability_sampling
Question No: 33 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following has greatly facilitated the researcher to conduct tabulation and
statistical analysis?
SPSS
MINITAB
SYSTAT
All of the given options
The proliferation of computer technology in business and universities has greatly
facilitated tabulation and statistical analysis. Commercial packages eliminate the need to
write a new program every time you want to tabulate and analyze data with a computer.
SAS, Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), SYSTAT, Epi. Info. And
MINITAB is commonly used statistical packages.
Page # 104
Question No: 34 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What is the place of quotations in referencing?
Quotations should be given at the end.
Quotations should be given exactly as they appear in the source.
http://www.latrobe.edu.au/linguistics/resources_hons/Brochure/Para10.pdf
Quotations should be given in left margins only.
Quotations should not be given at all.
Question No: 35 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following terms refers to a statistical method that can be used to statistically
equate groups on a pretest or some other variable?
Experimental control
Differential influence
Matching
Analysis of covariance
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc9.htm
MCQ # 07
Question No: 36 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following could be used for randomly assigning participants to groups in an
experimental study?
Split-half
Even versus Odd numbers
Use a list of random numbers or a computer randomization program
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc9.htm
MCQ#15
Let the researcher decide which group will be the best
Question No: 37 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The design in which one group of research participants is administered a treatment and is
then compared, on the dependent variable, with another group of research participants
who did not receive the experimental treatment is known as:
One-group posttest-only design
One-group pretest-posttest design
Posttest-only design with non-equivalent groups
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc9.htm
MCQ # 26
Time series design
Question No: 38 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is referred to as the influence of a single independent variable?
Interaction effect
Reactive effect
Main effect
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc9.htm
MCQ # 27
Proactive effect
Question No: 39 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following types of analysis can be done using secondary analysis?
The analysis of specific subgroups
Longitudinal analysis
Cross-cultural analysis
All of the given options
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch13/
MCQ # 04
Question No: 40 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is/are advantage(s) of the self-completed questionnaire?
Inability to confirm who completed the questionnaire
Its unsuitability for some kinds of respondents
Inability to ask many questions that are not directly relevant to the respondent
Easy to justify the answer
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch09/
MCQ # 02 U WILL SE THE REMANING IS DISADVANTAGE of the self-completed
questionnaire
Question No: 41 ( Marks: 5 )
Defend the use of the term inductive to describe qualitative data analysis and
interpretation.
Question No: 42 ( Marks: 5 )
Briefly discuss the Solomon s Four Group Design in experimental research with the
help of example?
Question No: 43 ( Marks: 10 )
A multination company ABC has launched a new tooth paste Cleanex in Pakistan.
After eight months the company wants to analyze the consumer satisfaction about their
tooth paste. For research purpose, develop questions for the following scenarios that can
be used in questionnaire.
See the consumer preference for tooth paste or tooth powder by using nominal scale.
i. See the consumer preference for Cleanex Tooth Paste by using ordinal scale.
ii. See the important characteristics of the Cleanex Tooth Paste by using interval scale
so that the company can modify its strengths and improve its weaknesses.
iii. Check the monthly consumption of the tooth paste by using the ratio scale.
Question No: 44 ( Marks: 10 )
What are different types of probability sampling? Explain any two with detail.
Question No: 45 ( Marks: 10 )
What are different advantages and disadvantages of using secondary data?
FINALTERM EXAMINATION
Fall 2009
AFAAQ_TARIQ@YAHOO.COM
STA630- Research Methods
Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The part of the action research spiral that differentiates this research methodology from
other kinds of research is;
► Looking at multiple sources of data.
► Taking action based on results.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381555.cw/index.html
MCQ # 06
► Thinking about or analyzing data in more than one way.
► The kinds of data that are collected.
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Individuals who engage in action research are most concerned with:
► Supporting the way things are being done.
► Publishing results
► Proving a hypothesis
► Improvement
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381508.cw/index.html
MCQ # 20
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Research may differ along a series of dimensions. Which of the following may be applied
to this statement?
► The level of manipulation used to elicit data collection.
► The data-collection technique.
► The type of data collected.
► Type, technique and manipulation of data collection
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements best defines hypothesis?
► A quantitative study.
► A tentative prediction of the results of the research.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9865/2525651.cw/content/index
MCQ # 24
► A qualitative research design.
► The operational definition of the study.
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What is the first step in the research process?
► Problem definition
► Define broad problem area
The research process consists of a number of steps. The first step in any research is
selecting the topic, which could start from the broad area of interest
Page # 33
► Theoretical framework
► Preliminary data collection
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When there is a need of generating new ideas for hypotheses or to interpret the results of
some research, which one is the best research deign?
► Experiment
► Surveys
► Focus group discussion
Focus group discussions: It is a discussion of an issue by 6-12 persons with a moderator
for 1-2 hours. The issue can be a public concern, a product, a television program, a
political candidate, or a policy. Focus groups are useful in exploratory research or to
generate new ideas for hypotheses, and the interpenetration of results.
PAGE # 38
► Communication analysis
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is an example of deception in business research?
► The obtaining of company material without permission.
► The researcher wearing a disguise during an observation.
► The researcher representing their research as being about a different
topic. http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch05/
MCQ # 09
► The researcher failing to ask permission to interview someone.
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is least likely to occur as an ethical problem with electronic
research?
► Privacy could be invaded.
► People are not likely to be able to stop once they have begun participating.
► Debriefing could be avoided.
► Informed consent cannot be completely monitored.
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the difference between measures and indicators?
► Measures are unambiguous quantities, whereas indicators are devised
from common sense understandings.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199202959/01student/cqs/ch06/
MCQ # 03
► Indicators have a more direct relationship to the underlying concept than
measures.
► Measures are intuitively devised and then applied as if they were direct indicators
of a concept.
► Indicators are unambiguous quantities, whereas measures are subjective and
value-laden.
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The extent to which a test provides scores that are meaningful, appropriate, or useful is
referred to as;
► Reliability
► Accuracy
► Internal validity
► Validity
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9866/2525945.cw/content/index
MCQ # 18
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following functions is performed by the Ordinal scale?
► Categorize
► Distance
► Order
Ordinal scales include the characteristics of the nominal scale plus an indicator of order.
PAGE # 53
► Unique origin
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What is the difference between interval/ratio and ordinal variables?
► Ordinal data can be rank ordered, but interval/ratio data cannot.
► The distance between categories is equal across the range of interval/ration data.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199202959/01student/cqs/ch14/
MCQ # 01
► Interval/ratio variables contain only two categories.
► Ordinal variables have a fixed zero point, whereas interval/ratio variables do not.
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statement refers to cross-sectional design?
► A comparison of two or more variables over a long period of time
► The collection of data from more than one case at one moment in time
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch02/
MCQ # 05
► One that is devised when the researcher is in a bad mood
► A study of one particular section of society, e.g. the middle classes
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is TRUE for research plan?
► It should be detailed.
► It should be given to others for review and comments.
► It sets out the rationale for a research study.
► All of the given options
http://www.scribd.com/doc/22683412/Lecture-Notes-Research-Chaper-1-9
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following typically does NOT apply to observers in survey research
studies?
► They observe predetermined activities.
► They are participant observers.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381582.cw/index.html
MCQ # 09
► They obtain information by watching rather than asking
► They must be careful not to influence the activities they observe.
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is not an advantage of the self-completion questionnaire over the
structured interview?
► It is cheaper to administer.
► It is quicker to administer.
► It is easier to prompt the interviewee.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch09/
MCQ # 01
► It is easier to remove interviewer effects.
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Mr. X has coded his observations to hide the identity of each of the three participants in
his study. He is ensuring;
► protection from harm
► confidentiality
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1489/381347.cw/index.html
MCQ # 01
► informed consent
► anonymity
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The cover letter to a questionnaire study should contain all of the following, EXCEPT;
► A list of participants
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381582.cw/index.html
MCQ # 17
► A self-addressed, stamped envelope
► Purpose of the study
► Reasons to respond
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Teachers are advised to predict the results of student attitudinal questionnaires, because;
► It will help them decide if students answered truthfully.
► It gives them a point of comparison against which to judge actual responses.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381508.cw/index.html
MCQ # 10
► It will allow them to apply statistical procedures in analyzing results.
► It helps them familiarize themselves with the questionnaires.
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In conducting an action research study of "student's organizational skills during class in a
particular school", which of the following would NOT likely to provide useful data?
► Interviews with teachers
► Classroom observations
► Parent surveys
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381508.cw/index.html
MCQ # 16
► Teacher's journal entries
Question No: 22 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Why it is helpful to keep a research diary or log book while you are conducting your
project?
► To give you something to do in the early stages of your research when nothing is
happening.
► Because funding councils generally demand to see written evidence that you were
working every day during the period of the research.
► To keep a record of what you did and what happened throughout the
research process.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199202959/01student/cqs/ch03/
MCQ # 08
► It can be added to your dissertation to ensure that you reach the required word
limit.
Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is likely to happen if clear instructions are not given as to how the
respondent should answer the question?
► Respondents may delete inappropriate answers rather than select appropriate ones.
► Respondents may choose only one answer when they need to choose as many as
apply.
► Respondents may complete questions that are not relevant to them.
► All of the given options
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch09/
MCQ # 07
Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT a suitable topic for research using a diary?
► The amount of time managers spend on particular activities.
► The frequency with which managers undertake particular tasks.
► The locations in which a trade union representative has discussions with
individual members. Correct
► The volume of female managers in the retail industry.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch09/
MCQ # 09
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following represents excellent advice for conducting an interview?
► Listen more and talk less
► Don't interrupt
► Don't be judgmental about the interviewee's beliefs or views
► All of the given options
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is an example of a dilemma that might face feminist business
researchers conducting qualitative interviews with women?
► What role to adopt while interviewing male managers?
► How many female employees should be interviewed for a representative sample?
Correct
► How to overcome the issue of false consciousness?
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch18/
MCQ # 09
► What data to use while publishing findings?
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following sampling strategies was used when the three students with the
highest GPAs were selected?
► Extreme case
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1489/381384.cw/index.html
MCQ # 02
► Snowball
► Maximum variation
► Normal case
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which type of sampling strategy is exemplified by selecting two types of individuals:
those who are extremely happy and those who are extremely sad?
► Snowball
► Intensity
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9866/2525932.cw/index.html
MCQ # 03
► Homogeneous
► Purposive
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The logic of purposive sampling is:
► To use participants because the researcher has access to them.
► That a random sample can generalize to a population.
► That a few information-rich participants studied in depth yield many
insights about a topic.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1488/381150.cw/index.html
MCQ # 02
OR
PAGE # 90
► To include all participants, even though they are not all relevant to the problem.
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Using a sample of 30 participants, a researcher finds a correlation of 0.30 between two
variables. The relationship is not statistically significant. If the researcher were to triple
her sample size, which of the following is most likely?
► The correlation would be statistically significant.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381655.cw/index.html
MCQ # 09
► The correlation would be larger.
► The correlation would be smaller.
► Nothing is likely to change.
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following steps begins the analysis of qualitative data?
► Reading and memoing
► Describing the content and participants Correct
► Classifying and interpreting
► Data management
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381473.cw/index.html
MCQ # 06
Question No: 32 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following represents the most general conceptualization in qualitative data
analysis?
► Word
► Topic Correct
► Category
► Pattern
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381483.cw/index.html
MCQ # 01
Question No: 33 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following BEST differentiates data analysis from interpretation?
► Interpretation requires more conceptual and integrative thinking than
data analysis.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9871/2527149.cw/content/index
MCQ # 11
► Interpretation involves computerized analysis of data.
► Data analysis is explanatory and interpretation is conceptual. Correct
► Data analysis involves conceptualization but interpretation does not.
Question No: 34 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The statistic used to determine the relationship between two variables is:
► Analysis of covariance
► Chi square
► Standard deviation Correct
► Pearson "r"
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381743.cw/index.htmlQuesti
onNo:35
MCQ # 17
Question No: 35 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT a control procedure used in causal-comparative research?
► Matching
► Subgroups
► Chi square
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381743.cw/index.html
MCQ # 18
► Analysis of covariance
Question No: 36 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following best describes qualitative data coding?
► Adding all of the scores together and describing them statistically
► Identify data segments that contain general episodes
► Numerically representing the concepts identified by the participants Correct
► Dividing data in parts that represent single thoughts
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381473.cw/index.html
MCQ # 04
Question No: 37 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The bivariate tables derived from trivariate table are called;
► Sub table
► Bivariates
► Partials
A trivariate table has a bivariate table of the independent and dependent variable for each
category of the control variable. These new tables are called partials.
PAGE # 110
► Correlational tables Correct
Question No: 38 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Quasi-experimental research is used because:
► Random selection is not possible
► Neither random selection nor random assignment is possible
► Random assignment is not possible
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381820.cw/index.html
MVQ # 16
► There are no comparison groups available
Question No: 39 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A researcher believes that the effects of a treatment will be different for males and
females. Which one is the best method to test this possible interaction?
► Single-subject design
► Factorial design
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381820.cw/index.html
MCQ # 17
OR
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factorial_experiment
► Time-series design Correct
► Quasi-experimental design
Question No: 40 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The influence of the researcher's background, personal experiences, preferences, or
attitude on an interview or observation is technically defined as:
► Participant bias
► Observer bias
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1489/381347.cw/index.html
MCQ # 18
► Observer effect Correct
► Nonparticipant effect
Question No: 41 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
On which component of his field notes did Mr. Majid focused when he expressed in his
notes his thoughts and ideas about what he observed?
► Description Correct
► Reflection
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1489/381392.cw/index.html
MCQ # 01
► Protocol
► Formal data
Question No: 42 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is linked with an abstract model of underlying relations or causal
mechanism?
► Historical comparative research
PAGE # 148
Synthesis links specific evidence with an abstract model of underlying relations or causal
mechanism.
► Social research
► Action research
► Experimental research
Question No: 43 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In which section is the researcher allowed greater flexibility to express opinions, discuss
implications for educational practice, and suggest additional research?
► Review of the literature
► Significance of the study
► Results
► Discussion
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1492/382157.cw/index.html
MCA # 07
Question No: 44 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following can be referred as Haphazard Sampling?
► Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling (also called haphazard or accidental sampling)
PAGE # 90
OR
http://www.starmass.com/en/research_sampling_method.htm
► Purposive Sampling
► Snowball Sampling Correct
► Quota Sampling
Question No: 45 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
An important issue in index construction is to------------items.
► Reconstruct
► Codify
► Measure
► Weight
An important issue in index construction is whether to weight items.
PAGE # 103
Question No: 46 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following elements of Observation is/are included in Non Reactive
research?
► External Appearance
► Count Behaviors
► Time Duration
► All of the given options
Observations of Non-Reactive Observations
• External Appearance
• Count Behaviors
• Time Duration
PAGE # 124
Question No: 47 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Secondary /existing data may include which of the following?
► Official documents
► Personal documents
► Archived research data Correct
► All of the given options
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc6.htm
MCQ # 07
Question No: 48 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following major problem exist with non respondents in survey research?
► They tend to be alike in many ways.
► Data cannot be analyzed for only part of a sample.
► They cannot be found to determine if they are similar to respondents. Correct
► They may have different opinions than respondents.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381580.cw/index.html
MCQ # 05
Question No: 49 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following advantage differentiates personal interview from mail, internet
and telephonic survey?
► Cheaper
► Expensive
► Easier
► Inexpensive
Question No: 50 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which one of the following methods offers the lowest degree of geographic flexibility?
► Mail survey
Mail questionnaires can reach a geographically dispersed sample simultaneously and at a
relatively low cost because interviewers are not required.
PAGE # 70
► Telephone interview
► Door-to-door personal interview
► Internet survey
Question No: 51 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following survey research methods is the most expensive?
► Telephone interview
► Mail survey
► Door-to-door personal interview
As the cost of personal interviews continues to increase
PAGE # 69
► Mall intercept personal interview
Question No: 52 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When a respondent tells the interviewer that he reads "Best Selling English News Paper"
on a daily basis so that he can impress the interviewer, this is an example of:
► Administrative bias
► Interviewer bias
Interviewer Bias
Interviewer’s personal likings and dis-likings, the environment, and cultural biases can
affect the understanding of the responses, its recording, and its interpretation.
PAGE # 66
► Submission bias
► Response bias Correct
Question No: 53 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
All of the following are stages in the selection of a sample EXCEPT:
► Determine sample size
► Analyze data
► Conduct fieldwork
► Select a sampling frame
Question No: 54 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A stratified sample in which the number of sampling units drawn from each stratum is in
proportion to the population size of that stratum is called a:
► Balanced stratified sample Correct
► Proportional stratified sample
The number of sampling units drawn from each stratum is in proportion to the relative
population size of the stratum, the sample is proportionate stratified sampling.
Page # 94
► Cluster sampling
► Convenience sample
Question No: 55 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Assigning males the value of zero and females the value of one in a database to record
the gender of the respondents is an example of:
► Coding
Coding
Entering the answer to survey questions into a computer in abbreviated form. For
example, M for male, F for female. Coding in qualitative research uses the same
principle, on a larger scale.
http://www.audiencedialogue.net/gloss-data.html
Or
Page # 99
For example, a researchers codes males as 1 and females as 2. Each category of variable
and missing information needs a code. A codebook is a document (i.e. one or more
pages) describing the coding procedure and the location of data for variables in a format
that computers can use.
► Editing
► Verification
► Test tabulation
Question No: 56 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Arranging data into a table is called:
► Analysis
► Frequency
► Interpretation
► Tabulation
The classification or placing of data into tabular form is called as tabulation
http://www.tutorvista.com/math/tabulation-of-data-tutoring
Question No: 57 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A researcher interested in a data matrix that displays the frequency of some combination
of possible responses to multiple variables should construct a:
► Contingency table
A contingency table is formed by cross-tabulating the two or more variables. It is
contingent because the cases in each category of a variable get distributed into each
category of a second variable. The table distributes cases into categories of multiple
variables at the same time and shows how the cases, by the category of one variable, are
“contingent upon” the categories of the other variables
Page # 105
► Regression equation
► Marginal table
► None of the given options
Question No: 58 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When initial subjects are selected randomly and additional subjects are obtained from
recommendations of names from the initial subjects, this sampling technique is called:
► Judgment sample
► Snowball
Snowball sampling is a special nonprobability method used when the desired sample
characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate
respondents in these situations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects
to generate additional subjects. While this technique can dramatically lower search costs,
it comes at the expense of introducing bias because the technique itself reduces the
likelihood that the sample will represent a good cross section from the population.
http://www.statpac.com/surveys/sampling.htm
► Convenience sample
► Cluster sample Correct
Question No: 59 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When different interviewers are used in a pretest from those used in the posttest and this
produces different results in the study, this is an example of a:
► History effect
► Mortality effect
► Instrumentation effect
Instrumentation Effects: Instrumentation effects are yet another source of threat to
internal validity. These might arise because of a change in the measuring instrument
between pretest and posttest, and not because of the instrument’s differential impact at
the end. For example, in a weightloss experiment, the springs on the scale weaken during
the experiment, giving lower readings in the posttest.
A change in the wording of questions (may be done to avoid testing effects), change in
interviewers, or change in other procedures to measure the dependent variable can cause
instrumentation effect.
Performance of the subjects measured by the units of output in the pretest, but when
measuring the out put in posttest the researcher measures it by “the number of units
rejected, and the amount of resources expended to produce the units.
Page # 121
► Cohort effect
Question No: 60 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is a threat to the internal validity of experiment using a repeated
measures design?
► Instrumentation effect
Factors Affecting Internal Validity
1. History Effect:
2. Maturation Effect:
3. Testing Effects:
4. Instrumentation Effects: (Page # 121)
5. Selection Bias Effect:
6. Statistical Regression:
7. Mortality:
8. Mechanical Loss:
9. Experimenter Expectancy:
► Cohort effect
► Attrition effect
► All of the given options
Question No: 61 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Most threats to are taken care of by the experiment’s design, while most
threats to need to be taken care of by the designer of the experiment.
► Internal validity, external validity
http://www.coe.iup.edu/grbieger/Classes/LTCY698/Module 6/Validity.ppt#263,6
► External validity, internal validity
► Randomization, reliability
► Reliability, randomization
Question No: 62 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In which of the following, the beginning and end are not clear. The interview can be
picked up later?
► Survey Interview
► Field Interview
Field Interview
The beginning and end are not clear. The interview can be picked up later.
► Deception
► None of the given options
Question No: 63 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The written set of guidelines that describes an outline of topics to be covered by a focus
group moderator is called a:
► Discussion guide
The basic idea is to lay out a set of issues for the group to discuss. It is important to bear
in mind that the moderator will mostly be improvising comments and questions within
the framework set by the guidelines.
Page # 153
► Concept test
► Case study
► All of the given options
Question No: 64 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is a disadvantage of focus groups?
► Requires objective, sensitive, and effective moderators
► May not be useful for discussing sensitive topics
► High cost
► All of the given options
Disadvantages of Focus Groups
Require objective, sensitive, and effective moderators.
May have unique sampling problems
May not be useful for discussing sensitive topics in face-to-face situations
Cost a considerable amount of money, particularly when they are not conducted by
someone employed by the company desiring the focus group.
Higher cost
Question No: 65 ( Marks: 3 )
What do we write in executive summary of a research report?
Executive Summary of Research Report:
It is very important part of the report. And it is observed that mostly managers read
summary report normally and rest members read whole report.
Executive summary write in four elements:
1. First objective of the report is mentioned and then most important part and specific
reason of the project.
2. Main results are presented including purpose.
3. The conclusions of the report based on results.
4. The suggestions on the basis of conclusions that action will be taken
.
Question No: 66 ( Marks: 5 )
What is different Ethical dilemma of Field research?
Ans
Ethical Dilemmas of Field research
The dilemmas are made when the researchers are alone in fields and have very much
little time to make decision. The ethical dilemmas raises when a field researcher get
involve into lives of other people.
These dilemmas arise suddenly when some one interacting in the field with others.
Some of these dilemmas:
Confidentiality:
In field some learns a lot and some not very much, similarly some one has some
confidential data and don’t want to share with anyone which creates it.
Deception:
Deception may arise because of false role, name or identity, some agreed with some one
and some one not some time. So because of these things this occurs.
The powerful:
Field researchers are normally those who are without power in society e.g., street people,
the poor, and powerful people block their way and criticized them
Involvement with deviations:
Some researchers conduct research on deviants who engage in illegal behavior. This type
of things create dilemma due to involvement in illeal activities.
Last field reports:
At the end of research, the knowledge, a researcher gains and his final report or thesis can
make a dilemma between the right of privacy and the right to know. In last report if
researcher hides some fact or not give the true picture of research then it creates a
dilemma.
Question No: 67 ( Marks: 10 )
By using Likert scale, how would you score a positive and negative statement? Give one
example to explain your answer.
Ans:
Likert scale is bused on 5 responses therefore lets take an example and constructed
number of statements for each element with five responses.
➢ Strongly Agree
➢ Agree
➢ Undecided
➢ Disagree
➢ Strongly Disagree
These statements could be of both positive and negative.
For positive statements
We score from 5 to 1 i.e. strongly agree to strongly disagree
For negative statement
Score will be reversed i.e 1 to 5
1 for strongly agree
2 for agree
3 for undecided
4 for disagree
5 for strongly disagree
Question No: 68 ( Marks: 10 )
How observations can be structured in non-reactive research?
Ans
In non reactive research, the people or the things that are being studied are not aware of
that.
Non reactive research is structured as follow:
PHYSICAL TRACES:
• Erosion:
In erosion wear and tear has a greater use. For example, a researcher examines that
children like those toys which are worn out and children have more interest in them.
ARCHIVES:
• Running Records:
In these records many researches can be done.
For example, a record of thieves in jail record of daily marriages. Etc.
• Other Records:
Irregular records can give a lot
. For example, look into the number of reams of paper purchased by a college principal’s
office for the last 10 years and compare it with students’ enrollment.
OBSERVATIONS:
• Time Duration:
By this type of research, researcher can check the interest of people indifferent things.
Like time spending in seeing the signboards on the road.
• External Appearance:
It shows the behavior of people in social factor that how they want to look.
How people appear may indicate social factors. For example, a
researcher can examine that in university how much percentage of student’s wear casual
dressing and how much formal.
FINALTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2009
AFAAQ_TARIQ@YAHOO.COM
STA630- Research Methods (Session - 2)
SOLVED By Muhammad Afaaq
Marks: 80
Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the basis of the Scientific Method?
To test hypothesis in conditions that is conducive to its success.
To formulate a research problem and disprove the hypothesis
To formulate a research problem, test the hypothesis in carefully controlled conditions
that challenge the hypothesis.
http://www.uk.sagepub.com/breakwell/downloads/mcq/mcq_01/mcq_01.htm
Mcq # 01
To test hypothesis and if they are disproved, they should be abandoned completely.
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
An inductive logic is one that:
Involves testing as explicitly defined hypothesis
Does not allow for findings to feed back into the body of knowledge
Uses quantitative methods whenever possible
Allows theory to emerge out of the data
http://www.oup.com/uk/ orc/bin/9780199202959/01student/cqs/ch01/
MCQ # 03
OR
The usual application of inductive theory, however, is to allow theory to emerge from our
findings. We find an interesting question, we gather data on it and we 'theories' from our
findings. It may be that these 'theories' are, in reality, simply 'interesting insights' rather
than 'grand theories' but they can be valuable for all that.
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is not a concept?
Leadership
Total Quality Management
Human Resource Management
Intelligence Quotient (IQ).
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch06/
MCQ # 01
OR
Concepts are the building blocks of theory, each of which represents a label given to a
common element of the social world. IQ is a measure of the concept of intelligence; it is
not a concept in itself.
An independent variable is a factor that can be varied or manipulated in an experiment
http://www.everythingbio.com/glos/definition.php?word=independent+variable
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the definition of an independent variable?
A variable that is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter
A response variable
The behavioral measure made by the experimenter
A dependent variable that is controlled by the experimenter
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The cause variable or the one that identifies forces or conditions that act on something
else is known as:
Moderating variable
Independent variable
The cause variable, or the one that identifies forces or conditions that act on something
else, is the independent variable.
PAGE # 19
Categorical variable
Dependent variable
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A measure is reliable if it provides consistent .
Hypothesis
Results
A measure is reliable if it provides consistent Results
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/A_measure_is_reliable_if_it_provides_consistent
Procedure
Sensitivity
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements relates to concurrent validity?
The measure apparently reflects the content of the concept in question.
A criterion is employed on which cases are known to differ.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch06/
MCQ # 04
A future criterion is employed on which cases are known to differ.
A measure is gauged by comparing it to measures of the same concept developed through
other methods.
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Research may differ along a series of dimensions. Which of the following may be applied
to this statement?
The type of data collected.
The data-collection technique
The level of manipulation used to elicit data collection.
All of the given options
http://www.uk.sagepub.com/breakwell/downloads/mcq/mcq_01/mcq_01.htm
MCQ # 06
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Cross cultural studies are an example of:
Comparative design
Historical-comparative research is a collection of techniques and approaches. It is a
distinct type of research that puts historical time and /or cross-cultural variation at the
center of research – that is, which treats what is studied as part of the flow of history and
situated in cultural context.
PAGE # 142
OR
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199202959/01student/cqs/ch02/
Longitudinal design
Experimental design
Case study design
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When constructing a questionnaire, there are few principles to which you should adhere.
Which of the following is NOT one of those principles?
Avoid using "leading" or "loaded" questions
Avoid double-barreled questions
Avoid ambiguity and confusion
Avoid arranging questions in a sequence
PAGE # 77, 78
Guidelines for Questionnaire Design
1. Questionnaire Relevancy
2. Questionnaire Accuracy
3. Avoid Ambiguity, Confusion, and Vagueness.
4. Avoid Double-Barreled Questions
5. Avoid Leading Questions
6. Avoid Loaded Questions
7. Avoid Burdensome Questions that may Tax the Respondent’s Memory
8. Arrange Questions in a Proper Sequence
9. Use Filter Question, if Needed
10. Layout of the questionnaire
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements is true about closed ended questions and open ended
questions?
A closed ended question means that the chances of unreliable post-coding is small,
whereas an open ended question means that there is a possibility of data processing error.
A closed ended question allows for the researchers terminology to be used, whereas an
open ended question allows the respondant to use terms they are familiar with.
A closed ended question allows for easy processing, whereas coding an open-ended
question can be very time consuming.
A closed ended question has many advantages over open ended question.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch10/
MCQ # 02
JUST 4 CONCEPT NOT EXACT MATCH
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT an example of a problem with using social survey
research to investigate behaviour?
Respondents tend to answer by giving the most socially desirable answer.
Respondents may inadvertently omit key terms in the question.
Respondents may not give an honest reply to what they see as a threatening question.
Respondents may be unwilling to reveal information as they believe they are likely to be
identified.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch11/
MCQ # 01
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following represents excellent advice for conducting an interview?
Listen more and talk less
Don't interrupt
Don't be judgmental about the interviewee's beliefs or views
All of the given options
[PPT]
Qualitative Research Methods
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Smaller sample sizes can be used in correlation research when;
The researcher expects no relationship between the variables.
There are only two variables to correlate.
The instruments used to measure the variables have low validity and reliability.
The instruments used to measure the variables have high validity and reliability.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381698.cw/index.html
MCQ # 02
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following steps begins the analysis of qualitative data?
Reading and memoing
Describing the content and participants
Classifying and interpreting
Data management
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MCQ # 06
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following could NOT be a cause of variation in high school achievement?
Reading ability
Parental involvement
Teacher expectations
College attendance
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onNo:11
MCQ # 11
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The statistic used to determine the relationship between two variables is:
Analysis of covariance
Chi square
Standard deviation
Pearson "r"
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onNo:22
MCQ # 17
OR
The correlation between two variables reflects the degree to which the variables are
related. The most common measure of correlation is the Pearson Product Moment
Correlation (called Pearson's correlation for short).
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A researcher studies three groups of students who vary in level of self-confidence. She
finds that students with higher self-confidence are more popular among their peers. The
most plausible conclusion is that:
We do not know what causes self-confidence or popularity.
Self-confidence causes popularity.
Popularity causes self-confidence.
Self-confidence and popularity are related.
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MCQ # 07
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is true about validity?
A study can be internally valid but not externally valid.
A study can be externally valid but not internally valid.
A study must be both internally and externally valid.
http://www.docstoc.com/docs/14330216/Bias-in-Clinical-Research
SLIDE # 03
The internal and external validity of studies are not related in any way.
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Testing most likely, negatively affect internal validity when:
The information tested is attitudinal in nature
The time between pre- and posttest is short
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MCQ # 10
The instrument is unreliable
The participants are very low scorers
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Ecological validity refers to:
The participants to whom results generalize
The instruments used to measure the independent and dependent variables
The internal validity of a study
The context to which results generalize
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MCQ # 01
Question No: 22 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which one is not the part of non reactive research?
Physical traces
Archives
Observations
Interviews
Varieties of Non-Reactive Observations
Physical Traces:
Archives:
Observations:
PAGE 124
Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which advice would you offer a novice researcher conducting his first observation?
Observe only one behavior at a time
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MCQ # 08
Allow variables to emerge from the context
Record behaviors only after leaving the site
Develop a preconceived notion of what is going to help structure the observation
Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
How the Procedure for data processing and analysis can be evaluated in Pilot Testing?
Make dummy tables
Procedure for data processing and analysis can be evaluated:
Make dummy tables. See how can we tabulate the data and use the appropriate statistics
for purposes of interpretations
Page # 81
Work output of each member
Length of Questionnaire
Format Tools
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the complete group of specific population elements relevant to
the research project?
Element
Target Population
Target population is the complete group of specific population elements relevant to the
research project.
Page # 88
OR
http://www.ehes.info/manuals/EHES_manual/PartA/EHES_Manual_PartA_Chapter2.pdf
Sampling Frame
Sampling Unit
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the summary description of a given variable in a population?
Statistic
Observation Unit
Parameter
A parameter is the summary description of a given variable in a population.
Page # 89
Sampling Unit
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is that element or set of elements considered for selection in some
stage of sampling?
Parameter
Sampling Unit
A sampling unit is that element or set of elements considered for selection in some stage
of sampling. Sampling may be done in single stage or in multiple stages.
Page # 89
Observation Unit
Statistic
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
If you are going on the street and suddenly a TV reporter starts taking your interview
regarding any issue, which of the following sampling technique is used by the TV
reporter?
Purposive Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling (also called haphazard or accidental sampling)refers to sampling
by obtaining units or people who are most conveniently available. For example, it may be
convenient and economical to sample employees in companies in a nearby area, sample
from a pool of friends and neighbors. The person-on-the street interview conducted by
TV programs is another example. TV interviewers go on the street with camera and
microphone to talk to few people who are convenient to interview. The people walking
past a
TV studio in thee middle of the day do not represent everyone homemakers, people in the
rural areas). Likewise, TV interviewers select people who look “normal” to them and
avoid people who are unattractive, poor, very old, or inarticulate.
PAGE # 90
Quota Sampling
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following sampling is most often used during the exploratory phase of are
search project and is perhaps the best way of getting some basic information quickly
and efficiently?
Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling is most often used during the exploratory phase of a research
project and is perhaps the best way of getting some basic information quickly and
efficiently. Often such sample is taken to test ideas or even to gain ideas about a subject
of interest.
Page #90
Quota Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Purposive Sampling
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following sampling method is the best way to select a group of people for a
study if you are interested in making statements about the larger population?
Convenience sampling
Quota sampling
Purposive sampling
Random sampling
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MCQ# 27
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In which of the following conditions, each part of the construct should be measured with
at least one indicator?
Unidimensionality
Scale
Weighing
Index Construction
Each part of the construct should be measured with at least one indicator. Of course, it is
better to measure the parts of a construct with multiple indicators.
Page # 102
Question No: 32 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following number of variables involved in Descriptive Statistics?
Bivariate
Multivariate
Univariate
All of the given options
Descriptive statistics describe numerical data. They can be categorized by the number of
variables involved: univariate, bivariate, or multivariate
Page # 105
Question No: 33 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
All of the following are types of personal communication, except;
Letters
Memos
Telephone conversations
Emails
Personal communication through letters, memos, telephone conversations,
Page # 167
Question No: 34 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following terms refers to a statistical method that can be used to statistically
equate groups on a pretest or some other variable?
Experimental control
Differential influence
Matching
Analysis of covariance
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MCQ # 07
Question No: 35 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In an experimental research study, the primary goal is to isolate and identify the effect
produced by which of the following?
Dependent variable
Extraneous variable
Independent variable
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MCQ # 23
Confounding variable
Question No: 36 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is referred to as the influence of a single independent variable?
Interaction effect
Reactive effect
Main effect
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MCQ # 27
Proactive effect
Question No: 37 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the process of marking segments of data with symbols,
descriptive words or category?
Concurring
Coding
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MCQ # 07
Coloring
Segmenting
Question No: 38 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A census taker often collects data through which of the following?
Standardized tests
Interviews
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MCQ # 20
Secondary data
Observations
Question No: 39 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which one is NOT an advantage of personal interviewing?
Interviewer influence
Disadvantages of Personal Interviewing:
5. Interviewer Influence
PAGE # 66
Probing complex questions
Visual aids
High completion rate
Question No: 40 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
All of the following are the characteristics of scientific methods of research, EXCEPT;
Cumulative
Deterministic
Unethical
Important Characteristics of Scientific Method
3. Cumulative
4. Deterministic
7. Rationalism
PAGE # 3, 4, 5
Rationalism
Question No: 41 ( Marks: 5 )
What are different Ethical Dilemmas of Field research?
Question No: 42 ( Marks: 5 )
What different measures of central tendency are used? Define each.
Question No: 43 ( Marks: 10 )
What are different steps in field research?
Question No: 44 ( Marks: 10 )
How historical comparative research is similar to field research?
Question No: 45 ( Marks: 10 )
Mr. Ali is a researcher in a well reputed research organization and he is using Stratified
Random sampling in his research. You are required to identify the reasons why
researchers use the Stratified Random Sampling?
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Question # 1 of 10 ( Start time: 11:30:13 AM ) Total Marks: 1
What is ordinal data?
Select correct option:
Ordinary data
Well behaveddata
Ranked data
Numbers
| Question # 2 of 10 ( Start t | : 11:31:24 AM | Total Mar | 1 |
| The organization of con epts in sequence from t | most concreteand |
individual to the most gen ral indicates s:
Select correct option:
One that b ars no relation to the u derlying concept.
An abstract, h tical definition of a ncept.
The degree of abstraction
An operational definition
Question # 3 of 10 ( S art time: 11:31:57 AM ) Total Marks: 1
The facts that should be collected to measure a variable, depend upon the
Select correct option:
Conceptual understanding
Dictionary meaning
Operational definition
All of the above
Question # 4 of 10 ( Start time: 11:32:19 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Under which of the following research method is not applicable?
Select correct option:
Health care
Business
Government offices
Imaginary worlds
Question # 6 of 10 ( Start time: 11:34:03 AM ) Total Marks: 1
A one tailed hypothesis predicts-----------
Select correct option:
The future
The lottery result
The frequency of the effec
The direction of the effect
Question # 10 ( Start time: 11:3 6 AM ) Total Marks: 1
What research is?
Select correct option:
A lab experiment
A report
A systematic Enquiry
A survey
Question # 8 of 10 ( Start time: 11:34:48 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is not a proper way to write a literature review?
Select correct option:
Organize common findings or arguments together.
List down a series of research reports with a summary of the findings of
each.
Logically link statements or findings,
Address the most important ideas first.
Question # 9 of 10 ( Start time: 11:35:34 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Logical relationship among the factors identified in the literature review is
called .
Select correct option:
Theatrical framework
Problem statement
None of the given options
Question # 10 of 10 ( Start time: 11:36:14 AM ) Total Ma s: 1
| Qualitative and Quantitative Research are the lassificatio | of esearch on |
Select correct option:
Use of the research
Time dime n
Techniques used
Purpose of the researc
Question # 1 of 15 ( rt time: 09:40:48 AM ) Total Marks: 1
A Literature review that summarizes what is known at a point in time is
known as:
Select correct option:
Narrative literature review
Systematic literaturereview
Integrative review
Historical review
Question # 2 of 15 ( Start time: 09:41:11 AM ) Total Marks: 1
The purpose of a literature review is to:
Select correct option:
Help you find out what is already known about this area.
Identify any inconsistencies or gaps in the literature.
Demonstrate an awareness of the theoretical context in which the current
study can be located.
All of the given options
Question # 3 of 15 ( Start time: 09:41:59 AM ) Total Marks: 1
| What is a relationship between the literature survey an | he theor | al |
Select correct option:
| Literature survey provides a solid foundatio | for devel | ng he theoretical |
| framework. | ant variables. | |
| he i entification of the | ||
| Literature survey helps in | e identifying t e relationship among variables. | |
| All of the given options |
Question # 4 o 15 ( Sta e: 09:42:25 AM ) Total Marks: 1
| Which of the following provides | solid basis foundation for the theoretical |
Select correct option:
Survey
Literature Review
Experiment
Referencing
Question # 5 of 15 ( Start time: 09:42:47 AM ) Total Marks: 1
What is a cross-sectional research?
Select correct option:
A study of one particular section of society
A comparison of two or more variables over a long period of time
The collection of data from more than one case at one moment in time
One that is conducted when environment is uncertain
Question # 6 of 15 ( Start time: 09:43:14 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Select correct option:
Research question
Theatrical framework
Problem statement
None of the given options
Question # 9 of 15 ( Start time: 09:45:39 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Qualitative and Quantitative Research are the classifications of research on
the basis of
Select correct option:
Use of the research
Time dimension
Techniques used
Purpose of the research
Question # 10 of 15 ( Start time: 09:46:42 AM ) Total Mark 1
Which of following statement is true?
Select correct option:
Theory and Research are dichotomous
Theory and Research are interrelated
There is no difference between Theory and Researc
None of the given statements is true
Question # 11 of 15 ( Start me: 09:47:06 AM ) Total Marks: 1
| Which of the following is not a | ature of th oretical framework? |
| Select corr | option: |
Making an inventory ables
Specify the direction of relationship
Presenting findings
Making an inventory of propositions
Question # 12 of 15 ( Start time: 09:47:27 AM ) Total Marks: 1
To say that a theory is falsifiable is to say that;
Select correct option:
It is based on results that are not replicable.
Investigators have replaced it with a simpler or more accurate theory.
We can imagine results that would contradictit.
It is so vague that it fits any and all possible results.
Question # 13 of 15 ( Start time: 09:47:54 AM ) Total Marks: 1
The following journal article would be an example of research;
"The benefits of florescent lighting on production in a factory setting."
Select correct option:
Applied
Interview
Basic
Stupid
Question # 14 of 15 ( St t time: 09:4 19 AM T al Marks: 1
What type of process rese ch is?
Select correct option:
A process to discover the truth
A process toinvent the hines
A process to make new medicines
A process to create ories
Question # 15 of 15 ( Start time: 09:48:45 AM ) Total Marks: 1
"The extensive use of chocolate causes pimples". The given hypothesis is a
(an):
Select correct option:
Descriptive hypothesis
Explanatory hypothesis
Non-Directional hypothesis
Co-relational hypothesis
Question # 1 of 15 ( Start time: 01:06:18 PM ) Total Marks: 1
meanings attached to a concept create problems of measurements.
Select correct option:
Unambiguous
Vague
Clear
Question # 2 of 15 ( Start time: 01:07:22 P ) Total Mar : 1
| Which of the following is an example o value- | e researc |
Conscious favor
Sympathy for the loser
Unstructure erviewing
None of the given options
Question # 3 of 15 ( Start time: 01:08:49 PM ) Total Marks: 1
| The scientific method | preferred over other ways of knowing because it is |
Select correct option:
Reliable
Systematic
Accurate
All of the given options
Question # 4 of 15 ( Start time: 01:09:30 PM ) Total Marks: 1
In the statement "high motivation results in high efficiency" motivation is
the:
Select correct option:
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Extraneous variable
Causal variable
Question # 5 of 15 ( Start time: 01:10:48 PM ) Total arks: 1
"Skepticism" is a norm of science. It is better explained b which of the
following statement?
Select correct option:
Combining the previous knowledg
Critical reading of the previous researches
Providing the proper references of qouted text
Locating research reports in li ies
Question # 6 of 15 ( Start e: 01:11:23 PM ) Total Marks: 1
Qualitative and Quantitative Research are the classifications of research on
the basis of
Select correct option:
Use of the research
Time dimension
Techniques used
Purpose of the research
Question # 7 of 15 ( Start time: 01:12:53 PM ) Total Marks: 1
What is an hypothesis?
Select correct option:
Question # 10 of 15 ( Start time: 01:15:07 PM ) Total Marks: 1
To explain, predict, and/or control phenomena are the goal
of----------------------
Select correct option:
A prediction of a relationship between certain variables.
An experiment that tests certain predictions.
An independent variable.
A dependent variable.
Question # 8 of 15 ( Start time: 01:14:01 PM ) Total Marks: 1
What is the final step of a scientific investigation?
Select correct option:
Analyze data
Collect data
Report the findings
Determine whether the hypothesis was support d
Question # 9 of 15 ( S rt time: 01 4:28 PM ) Total Marks: 1
| Which of the following s | uld not be a considera | in writing a proposal? |
Understan ng the problem situat n
The appearance/form f th proposal
Responding to every element exactly as specified by the client
Knowing as much a possible about the proposal recipients
The scientific method
Question # 11 of 15 ( Start time: 01:15:40 PM ) Total Marks: 1
Research questions are crucial because they will:
Select correct option:
Guide your decisions about what data to collect and from where.
Help you decide which research area interests you.
Ensure that your findings have external va ty.
Prevent you from thinkin about research strategi .
| Question # | of 15 ( Start time: 01:16:07 PM ) Total Marks: 1 |
| Which of the follo | is Not a part o research design? |
Data collection technique
Tool of data collec ion
Objectives of the study
Data processing and analysis
Tradition
Inductive logic
Deductive logic
Question # 13 of 15 ( Start time: 01:16:39 PM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following statements is true?
Select correct option:
All concepts are variables and all variables are concepts
Question # 2 of 15 ( Start time: 03:11:13 PM ) Total Marks: 1
A literature review requires;
Select correct option:
planning
All variables are concepts but all concepts are not variable
All concepts are variable but all variables are not concepts
None of the above
Question # 14 of 15 ( Start time: 01:17:43 PM ) Total Marks: 1
A Literature review that summarizes what is known at a point in time is
known as:
Select correct option:
Narrative literature review
Systematic literaturereview
Integrative review
Historical review
Question # 15 of 15 ( Start time: 01:18:15 PM ) To al Marks 1
Under which of the following research method is no applicable?
Select correct option:
Health care
Business
Government offices
Imaginary worlds
Question # 1 of 1 ( Start time: 0 :10:36 PM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is an example of value-free research?
Select correct option
Conscious favor
Sympathy for the loser
Unstructured interviewing
None of the given options
clear w riting
good writing
All of the given option
Question # 3 of 15 ( Start time: 03:11:32 PM ) Total Marks: 1
What type of process research is?
Select correct option:
A process to discover the truth
A process to invent the machines
A process to make new medicines
A process to create theories
Question # 4 of 15 ( Start time: 03:12:15 PM ) Total
Marks: 1
Why do you need to review the existing literature?
Select correct option:
To give your dissertation a proper academic
appearance, with lots of references
Because without it, you co ld never reach th
required word-count
To find out what is already know n about your area of interest
To help in your general studying
| Question # | of 15 ( Start time: 03: | :19 PM ) Total Marks: 1 |
| What is the f nal st | of a scientific inve tigation? | |
| Analyze data |
Collect data
Report the findings
Determine w hether the hypothesis w as supported
Question # 6 of 15 ( Start time: 03:13:51 PM ) Total Marks: 1
When we say that science is parsimonious, we mean that:
Select correct option:
Scientific theories are based on law s.
We must be careful because causes can occur afte
specific effects.
The best scientific theories are those that offer the simplest explanations
for a law.
Question # 8 of 15 ( Start time: 03:15:02 PM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is a discretevariable?
Select correct option:
Age
Nationality
Test score
Income
Click here to Save Answ er & Move to Next Question
Answer is Nationality
Question # 9 of 15 ( Start time: 03:16:06 PM ) Total Marks: 1
"Skepticism" is a norm of science. It is better explained b hich of th
following statement?
Select correct option:
Combining the previous know ledge
Critical reading of the previous researches
Providing the proper references of qouted text
Locating research reports libra ies
| Question # 10 of 15 ( Start time: | :16:39 PM T tal Marks: 1 |
| Which of fo | wing statement is true |
| Select correc opt | |
| ic otomous |
Theory and Research are interrelated
There is no difference between Theory and Researc
None of the given statements is true
Question # 11 of 15 Start time: 03:17:05 PM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following activities is Not included in debriefing?
Select correct option:
Explanation of any deception
Post study result sharing
Obtaining informed consent
Description of the purpose of study
Question # 12 of 15 ( Start time: 03:17:59 PM ) Total Marks: 1
The operational definition is also known as
Select correct option:
Working definition
Nominal definition
Conceptual definition
Dictionary definition
Question # 13 of 15 ( Start time: 03:18:34 PM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following statements is true?
Select correct option:
All concepts are variables and all variables are concepts
All variables are concepts but all concepts are not variable
All concepts are variable but all variables are not concepts
None of the above
Question # 14 of 15 ( Start time: 03:19:24 PM ) Tota Marks: 1
Which of the following is Not included in research propos l?
Select correct option:
Problem Statement
Research Design
Results
Bibliography
Question # 1 of tart time: 03:20:1 M ) Total Marks: 1
| The scientific method is r | ed over other ways of knowing because it is |
Select correct option:
Reliable
Systematic
Accurate
All of the given options
Question # 1 of 15 ( Start time: 11:08:56 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Under which of the following research method is not applicable?
Select correct option:
Health care
Business
Government offices
Imaginary worlds
Question # 2 of 15 ( Start time: 11:09:46 AM ) Total Marks: 1
The term "Extrapolation" is better explained by the statement:
Select correct option:
Facts lead to the rejection of theory
Identification the gap in knowledge
Theory predicts facts
None of the given options
| Question # 3 of 15 ( Start time: 11:10:10 AM ) Total Mar | : 1 |
|
| Which of the following is NOT a purpose of a l | rature rev | ? |
Helps you find out what is al e dy known ab ut this area.
Helps you in getting response from the respondents
Helps you in developing theoretical framework.
Helps you to lear f m others and stimu ate new ideas.
Question # 4 of 15 ( Start time: 1 10:53 AM ) Total Marks: 1
A good qualitative problem statement:
Select correct option:
Defines the independent and dependent variables
Conveys a sense of emerging design
Specifies a research hypothesis to be tested
Specifies the relationship between variables that the researcher expects
to find.
Question # 5 of 15 ( Start time: 11:11:31 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Qualitative and Quantitative Research are the classifications of research on
the basis of
Select correct option:
Use of the research
Time dimension
Techniques used
Purpose of the research
Question # 6 of 15 ( Start time: 11:11:59 AM ) Total Marks: 1
A statement concerned with the logical relationship among the ncepts is
called .
Select correct option:
Abstract
Theory
Proposition
Research statement
| Question # | f 15 ( Start time: 11: | 17 AM ) Total Marks: 1 |
| When we say tha | ence is parsimon ous, we mean that: |
Scientific theories are based on laws.
We must be carefu cause causes can occur after specific effects.
The best scientific theories are those that offer the simplest explanations
for a law.
Science accurately describes a wide range of behavior.
Question # 8 of 15 ( Start time: 11:13:43 AM ) Total Marks: 1
What is a relationship between the literature survey and the theoretical
framework?
Select correct option:
Literature survey provides a solid foundation for developing the theoretical
framework.
Literature survey helps in the identification of the relevant variables.
Literature survey helps in the identifying the relationship among variables.
All of the given options
Question # 9 of 15 ( Start time: 11:14:03 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is Not helpful in problem definition?
Select correct option:
Discussion with professionals
Hypothesis
Literature survey
Preliminary data collection
Question # 10 of 15 ( Start me: 11:15:18 AM ) Total Marks: 1
| Basic and Applied Research a | the classi | ations of research on the basis |
Select corre t opt
Use of the research
Time dimension
Techniques used
Purpose of the res rch
Question # 11 of 15 ( Start time: 11:15:48 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Before a researcher specified the relationship among variables, he must
have a (an):
Select correct option:
Inventory of variables
Inventory of propositions
Arrangement of propositions
Schematic diagram
Question # 12 of 15 ( Start time: 11:16:10 AM ) Total Marks: 1
All of the following are true about theories, except;
Select correct option:
They organize and summarize existing knowledge about a topic.
They are tentative until the facts prove them true.
They provide possible explanations for the phenomenon under study
They lead to testable hypotheses through the process of ded ction.
Question # 13 of 15 ( Start time: 11:16:50 AM ) Total Mark 1
Question # 14 of 15 ( Start time: 11:17:10 AM ) Total Marks: 1
What is the final step of a scientific investigation?
Select correct option:
Analyze data
Collect data
Report the findings
Determine whether the hypothesis was supported
Question # 15 of 15 ( Start time: 11:17:36 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is an example of value-free research?
Select correct option:
Conscious favor
Sympathy for the loser
Unstructured interviewing
None of the given options
Question # 1 of 15 ( Start time: 10:26:09 AM ) Total Marks: 1
What is the first step in the research process?
Select correct option:
Preliminary data collection
Problem definition
Theoretical framework
Define broad problem area
| Question # | o 15 ( Start time: 10:2 | 1 AM ) Total Marks: 1 |
| The scientific meth | preferred over | her ways of knowing because it is |
| more; | ||
| Select correct option: |
Reliable
Systematic
Accurate
All of the given options
Question # 3 of 15 ( Start time: 10:27:27 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which one of the following is not an assumption of science?
We can discover solutions to problems of interest.
Theoretical explanations must agree with common sense.
Question # 4 of 15 ( Start time: 10:28:08 AM ) Total Marks: 1
The following journal article would be an example of research;
"The benefits of florescent lighting on production in a factory sett g."
Select correct option:
Applied
Interview
Basic
Stupid
| Question # | o 15 ( Start time: 10:2 | 5 AM ) Total Marks: 1 |
| When we say that | nce is parsimoniou , we mean that: |
Scientific theories are based on laws.
We must be careful ause causes can occur after specific effects.
The best scientific theories are those that offer the simplest explanations
for a law.
Science accurately describes a wide range of behavior.
Select correct option:
There are reoccurring patterns in the world.
Events happen because of preceding causes.
Question # 6 of 15 ( Start time: 10:29:05 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Question # 7 of 15 ( Start time: 10:29:32 AM ) Total Marks: 1
What is a cross-sectional research?
Select correct option:
A study of one particular section of society
A comparison of two or more variables over a long perio f time
The collection of data from more than one case at one mom nt in time
One that is conducted when environment is uncert in
| Question # 8 of 15 ( Start | e: 10:30:06 AM | Total | s: 1 |
| The elaboration of the variable in the theore ical framework addresses | |||
| which type of qestions? | |||
| Select corre | option: |
Why we expect certain l nships to exist
How we expect certain relations ps to exist
Both of the given questions
None of the given questions
Question # 9 of 15 ( Start time: 10:30:32 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is Not a part of research design?
Select correct option:
Data collection technique
Tool of data collection
Objectives of the study
Data processing and analysis
Question # 10 of 15 ( Start time: 10:31:10 AM ) Total Marks: 1
In the statement 'an examination of the effects of discretionary behaviour
on employee performance' employee performance is the:
Select correct option:
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Extraneous variable
Causal variable
Question # 11 of 15 ( Start time: 10:31:30 AM ) Total Mark : 1
Research questions are crucial because they will:
Select correct option:
Guide your decisions about what data to collect and from where.
Help you decide which research area interests you.
Ensure that your findings have ext rnal valid .
Prevent you from thinking out researc strategies.
| Question # 12 of | Start time: 10:32:00 AM ) Total Marks: 1 |
researcher reviewing the literature and focusing on a specific problem that
has yet to be resolved?
Select correct option:
Identify a topic.
Describe the procedures to collect information.
Analyze the collected information.
State the results of the data analysis.
Question # 13 of 15 ( Start time: 10:32:25 AM ) Total Marks: 1
"There is no relationship between advertising and sales of product A" The
given hypothesis is a (an):
Select correct option:
Descriptive hypothesis
Correlational hypothesis
Null hypothesis
Alternative hypothesis
| Question # 14 of 15 ( Start time: 10:33:55 AM ) Total Mark | 1 |
Develop the law like findings of the natural sciences.
Boost their chances of publication.
Enhance the internal alidity of th r research.
Demonstrate the comp x techniques of statistic analysis.
| Question # 15 of 15 ( Start tim | 10:34:28 | ) Total Marks: 1 |
| Logical rel | nship among the fa tors identified in the literature review is | |
| called | . |
Select correct option:
Research question
Theatrical framework
Problem statemen
None of the given options
Question # 5 of 15 ( Start time: 10:37:46 AM ) Total Marks: 1
A variable is:
Select correct option:
Any characteristic of interest that can take on more than one value
Defined as the groups manipulated in experimental research
The complete set of scores we use in statistical analysis
Completely specified only in observational research
Question # 6 of 15 ( Start time: 10:38:01 AM ) T tal Mark
After a researcher has stated the specific problem o be studie in an
experiment, he must then develop a(n):
Select correct option:
Theory
Conclusion
Hypothesis
Summary of the data
Question # 7 of 15 ( art time: 10:38:15 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Ms. Roshi has been coordinating the Annual Festival at her school for the
last several years. She wants to be sure the students and parents enjoy the
festival again this year. On which source is she LEAST likely to rely when
making decisions about what to do?
Select correct option:
Tradition
Personal experience
Question # 11 of 15 ( Start time: 10:41:22 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Research
Expert opinion
Question # 8 of 15 ( Start time: 10:38:29 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following terms represents the most general, broad concept?
Select correct option:
Test
Assessment
Measurement
Instrument
Question # 9 of 15 ( Start time: 10:38:55 AM ) Tota Marks: 1
Which of the following is Not a technique to narrow down he broad problem
area?
Select correct option:
Doing a literature survey
| Ask questions fromthe knowled | able perso s |
| Consider t | in specific context |
Decide about the sample
Question # 10 of 15 ( Start time: 10:40:06 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following activities is Not included in debriefing?
Select correct option
Explanation of any deception
Post study result sharing
Obtaining informed consent
Description of the purpose of study
The independent variable is;
Select correct option:
The variable manipulated in order to observe its effects
The variable that is measured
The free spirited variable
A confounding variable
Question # 12 of 15 ( Start time: 10:41:38 AM ) Total Marks: 1
:
Research question
Theatrical framework
Problem statement
None of the given options
Question # 13 of 15 ( tart time: 10:42:55 AM Total Marks: 1
| The term "Extrapolation s better explained by t | tatement: |
| Facts lead | the rejection of theo |
| Identification of t | ap in knowledge |
None of the given options
Question # 14 of 15 Start time: 10:43:14 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is most helpful in defining research problem?
Select correct option:
Hypothesis
Preliminary data collection
Descriptive research
Theoretical framework
Internal validity
Test-retestreliability
Sta 630 quiz solved
The following journal article would be an example of _ research; "The
| benefits of florescent lighting on production n a factor | setting." |
Applied
Interview
Basic
Stupid
Before a researcher specified the relationship among variables, he must
have a (an):
Select correct opti
Inventoryof variables
Inventory of propositions
Arrangement of propositions
Question # 15 of 15 ( Start time: 10:44:17 AM ) Total Marks: 1
If a measure is consistent over multiple occasions, it has:
Select correct option:
Inter-rater reliability
Construct validity
Schematic diagram
To say that a theory is falsifiable is to say that;
Select correct option:
It is based on results that are not replicable.
Investigators have replaced it with a simpler or more accurate theory.
What is opposite of a variable?
Select correct option:
We can imagine results that would contradict it.
It is so vague that it fits any and all possible results.
Which of the following is Not a part of research design
Select correct option:
Data collection technique
Tool of data collection
Objectives of the study
Data processing and analysis
The facts t a
the
ould be collecte o measure a variable, depend upon
Select correct option:
Conceptual understanding
Dictionarymeaning
Operational definition
All of theabove
A constant
An extraneous variable
A dependent variable
A data set
Which of the following statements is true?
Select correct option:
All concepts are variables and all variables are concepts
All variables are concepts but all concepts are not variable
All concepts are variable but all variables are not concept
None of the above
| The scientific metho | is preferred over | her ways of knowing because |
Select correct option:
Reliable
Systematic
Accurate
All of the given options
Which of the following is not a feature of theoretical framework?
Select correct option:
Making an inventory of variables
Specify the direction of relationship
Presenting findings
Making an inventory of propositions
A statement concerned with the logical relationship among the concepts
is called .
Select correct option:
Abstract
Theory
Proposition
Research statement
Logical relationship among the factors identified
is called .
Select correct option:
the literature review
Research question
Theatrical framework
Problem s tement
None of the g ven opti
What is the first step in the research process?
Select correct option:
Preliminary data coll ction
Problem definition
Theoretical framework
Define broad problem area
The researcher protects the confidentiality in following ways, Except;
Select correct option:
Obtaining signed nondisclosure documents
Restricting access to data instruments where the respondent is identified.
The elaboration of the variables in the theoretical framework addresses
which type of qestions?
Select correct option:
Disclosure of data subsets
Restricting access to respondent identification
What is required if there is a chance that data could harm th
respondents?
Select correct option:
Change of results
A signed form detailing the types of limits
Free consent of respondents
All of the given options
Which of he following is mo t helpful in defining research problem?
Select corr c ption:
Hypothesis
Preliminary data c llection
Descriptive research
Theoretical framework
Traditions
Previous findings
How we expect certain relationships to exist
Both of the given questions
None of the given questions
Which of the following is included in research proposal?
Select correct option:
Data analysis
Results
Literature review
Conclusions section
Rationalism is t e application of:
Select correct op ion:
Research solution
Logic and arguments
Which of the following provides a solid basis foundation for the
theoretical framework?
Select correct option:
Survey
One that refers to opera singers and their work
Which of the following should not be a consideration in writing a
proposal?
Select correct option:
Literature Review
Experiment
Referencing
Which of the following is Not included in research pro sal?
Select correct option:
ProblemStatement
Research Design
Results
Bibliography
An operat onal definition is:
Select corr ct tion:
One that bears no relation to t erlying concept
An abstract, theoretical definition of a concept
A definition of a concept in terms of specific, empirical measures
Responding to every element exactly as specified by the client
Knowing as much as possible about the proposal recipients
Which of the following is the best hypothesis statement to address the
research question, "What impact will the new advertising cam aign have
on use of Brand B?"
Select correct option:
The new advertising campaign will impact Brand B usage.
The new advertising campaign will increase Brand trial.
The new advertising camp gn will cause inc ased Bran B usa e at the
expense of Brand C.
The new advertising campa will increase Brand Bs market penetration.
The term "Ext apolation" is
Select correct option:
ter explained by the statement:
Facts lead to the reje tionof theory
Identification of the gap in knowledge
Theory predicts facts
Understanding the problem situation
The appearance/form of the proposal
None of the given options
"The extensive use of chocolate causes pimples". The given hypothesis is
a (an):
Select correct option:
Descriptive hypothesis
Privacy could be invaded.
A concept is a generalized idea about----.
Select correct option:
A class of objects
Explanatory hypothesis
Non-Directional hypothesis
Co-relational hypothesis
The facts that should be collected to measure a variable, de d upon
the
Select correct option:
Conceptual understanding
Dictionarymeaning
Operational definition
All of theabove
Which of the following is l
e-research
t likely t cur as an ethical problem with
Select corr ct tion:
People are not likely to be able to stop once they have begun participating.
Informed consent c nnot be completely monitored.
Debriefing could be avoided.
Attributes
Occurrences
All of the given options
What is opposite of a variable?
Select correct option:
A constant
An extraneous variable
A dependent variable
A data set
"High productivity is sitively asso ted wit Job ommitment". The
given hypothesis is a (an):
Select correct option
Descriptive hypothesis
Explanatory y esis
Non-Directiona hypothesis
Co-relational hypothesis
Which of the following steps of the scientific method is exemplified by the
researcher reviewing the literature and focusing on a specific problem that
has yet to be resolved?
Select correct option:
Identify a topic.
Describe the procedures to collect information.
Analyze the collected information.
State the results of the data analysis.
The following journal article would be an example of research;
"The benefits of florescent lighting on production in a factory setting."
Select correct option:
A tentative statement about the relationship
Procedures determining what two issues are rarely used in quantitative
research?
Select correct option:
Objectivity and subjectivity
Question # 7 of 15 ( Start time: 08:43:11 PM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is Not included in research proposal?
Select correct option:
Problem Statement
Applied
Interview
Basic
Stupid
Question # 2 of 15 ( Start time: 08:39:37 PM ) Total Ma ks: 1
| Which of the following is NOT a purpose of a literature | view? |
Helps you find out what is already known about this ea.
Helps you in getting response from the respondents
Helps you indeveloping t oretic l framework.
Helps you to learn from others a d stimulate e deas.
Hypothesis e to :
Select correct optio
The outcome of an experiment
A conclusion drawn from an experiment
A form of bias in which the subject tries to outguess the experimenter
Research Design
Results
Bibliography
Question # 8 of 15 ( Start time: 08:44:01 PM ) To Marks: 1
The purpose of a literature review is to:
Select correct option:
Help you find out what already kn wn about h s area.
Identify any inconsistencies r gaps in the terature.
| Demonstra | an awareness of the | eoretical context in which the current |
| study can be loc | . |
All of the given options
Question # 9 of 15 ( Start time: 08:44:51 PM ) Total Marks: 1
What is a relationship between the literature survey and the theoretical
framework?
Select correct option:
Literature survey provides a solid foundation for developing the theoretical
framework.
Literature survey helps in the identification of the relevant variables.
Question # 13 of 15 ( Start time: 08:48:03 PM
A one tailed hypothesis predicts---------
) Total Marks: 1
Select correct option:
The future
The lottery result
The frequency of the effect
The direction of the effect
Question # 14 of 15 ( Start time: 08:48:26 PM
A good qualitative problem statement:
) tal Marks: 1
Select correct option:
Specifies the elations between var ables that the researcher expects to
find
Question # 15 of 15 ( Start time: 08:49:02 PM ) Total Marks: 1
"There is no relat nship between advertising and sales of product A"
The given hypothesis is a (an):
Select correct option:
Descriptive hypothesis
Co relational hypothesis
Defines the independe and depen ent varia es
Conveys a sense of emerging design
Specifies a research hypothesis t e tested
Null hypothesis
Alternative hypothesis
Which of the following is not a proper way to write a literature review?
Select correct option:
Organize common findings or arguments together.
List down a series of research reports with a summary of the findings of
each not confirmed
Logically link statements or findings,
Address the most important ideas first.
Question # 1 of 15 ( Start time: 08:51:56 PM ) Total Marks: 1
Theoretical framework is trying to develop a
study.
Select correct option:
Functional
Conceptual
Operational
Practical
model of our
| Question # | 15 ( Start time: | 52:32 PM ) Total Marks: 1 |
| In the statement " | motivation esults in high efficiency" motivation | |
| is the: | ||
| Select correct option: |
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Extraneous variable
Causal variable
Question # 3 of 15 ( Start time: 08:53:22 PM ) Total Marks: 1
The independent variable is;
Select correct option:
Norms of the society
Research design
Question # 6 of 15 ( Start time: 08:56:04 PM ) Total Marks: 1
The following journal article would be an example of research;
"The benefits of florescent lighting on production in a factory setting."
The variable manipulated in order to observe its effects
The variable that is measured
The free spirited variable
A confounding variable
Question # 4 of 15 ( Start time: 08:54:07 PM ) Total Marks
The application of the scientific method to the study of busin ss
problems is called;
Select correct option:
Inductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning
Business research
Grounded theory
Question 5 of 15 ( Start tim : 08:54:45 PM ) Total Marks: 1
Rights and o
the .
ations of resear er are generally dictated by
Select correct option:
Age of the respondent
Experience of the researcher
Select correct option:
Applied
Interview
Basic
Stupid
Question # 7 of 15 ( Start time: 08:56:51 PM ) Total Marks:
A concept is a generalized idea about---- .
Select correct option:
A class of objects
Attributes
Occurrences
All of the given options
| Question # 8 of 15 ( Start | e: 08:57: | M ) Total Marks: 1 |
| When doi g research involving | eception with human subjects, | |
| researchers h | an obligation to | o which of the following? |
Select correct optio
Tell subjects the truth about the study's purpose and methods after the
study is completed
Let subjects withdraw from the study at any time if they don't want to keep
participating
Both of the given options
None of the given options
Question # 9 of 15 ( Start time: 08:59:08 PM ) Total Marks: 1
All of the following are true about theories, except;
Select correct option:
They organize and summarize existing knowledge about a topic.
It is theoretically or practically significant.
Question # 12 of 15 ( Start time: 09:01:40 PM ) Total Marks: 1
The scientific method is preferred over other ways of knowing because
it is more;
Select correct option:
They are tentative until the facts prove them true.
They provide possible explanations for the phenomenon under study.
They lead to testable hypotheses through the process of deduction.
Question # 10 of 15 ( Start time: 09:00:02 PM ) Total Marks
The operational definition is also known as
Select correct option:
Working definition
Nominaldefinition
Conceptual definition
Dictionary definition
Question # 11 of 15 ( Start me: 09:0 M ) Total Marks: 1
Which of he following is NOT a characteristic of a good research
topic?
Select correct optio
It is ethical.
It can be investigated through the collection and analysis of data.
It focuses on a philosophical or ethical issue.
All of the given options
Question # 13 of 15 ( Start time: 09:02:10 PM ) Total Marks: 1
What is a cross-sectional research?
Select correct option:
A study of one particular section of society
A comparison of two or more variables over a long period of me
The collection of data from more than one case at one m ment in time
One that is conducted w en environment is unce t in
Question # 14 of 15 ( S r time: 09:0 :20 PM ) Total Marks: 1
| Which of following stateme | is true? |
Theory and Research ichotomous
Theory and Research are interrelated
There is no differenc between Theory and Research
Reliable
Systematic
Accurate
None of the given statements is true
Question # 15 of 15 ( Start time: 09:04:04 PM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is at the highest level of abstraction?
Select correct option:
Concept
Proposition
Which of the following statements is true?
Select correct option:
All concepts are variables and all variables are concepts
Theory
Hypothesis
Question # 1 of 15 (Start time: 05:28:49 PM)
Total Marks: 1
Null hypothesis states:
Select correct option:
Absence of relationship
Existence of relationshi
The direction of relationshi
Casual rela ship
Question # 2 of 15 (Start time: 05:29:46 PM)
Total Marks: 1
Total Marks: 1
A literature review requires;
Select correct option:
All variables are concepts but all concepts are not variable
All concepts are variable but all variables are not concepts
None of the above
Question # 3 of 15 (Start time: 05:30:24 PM)
Total Marks: 1
What research is?
Select correct option:
A lab experiment
A report
A systematic Enquiry
A survey
Question # 4 of 15 (Start time: 05:30:56 PM)
All of the given option
Question # 5 of 15 (Start time: 05:31:23 PM)
Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is a discrete variable?
Select correctoption:
Age
Nationality
Test score
Income
Question # 6 of 15 (Start time: 0 1:50 PM)
Total Marks: 1
A good qualitative problem statement:
Select correctoption:
Defines the independent and dependent variables
Conveys a sense of emerging design
Planning
Clear writing
Good writing
The application of the scientific method to the study of business problems
is called;
Select correct option:
Inductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning
Business research
Grounded ory
Question # 8 of 15 (Start time: 05:33:03 PM)
Specifies a research hypothesis to be tested
Specifies the relationship between variables that the researcher expects to
find.
Question # 7 of 15 (Start time: 05:32:32 PM)
Total Marks: 1
Total Marks: 1
After a researcher has stated the specific problem to be studied in an
experiment, he must then develop a (n):
Select correct option:
Hypothesis
Summary of the data
Question # 9 of 15 (Start time: 05:33:30 PM)
Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is not included in research prop al?
Select correct option:
Problem Statement
Research Design
Results
Bibliography
Question # 10 of 15 Start time 5:34:46 PM)
Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is not an example of deception?
Theory
Conclusion
Select correct option:
A part of the truth is not communicated to the respondent
To observe code of ethics
To leak out information regarding any confidential matter
To create bias between respondents before the survey
Question # 11 of 15 (Start time: 05:35:39 PM)
Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a good research topic?
Select correct option:
It is ethical.
It can be investigated through the collection and nalysis data.
It focuses on a philosophical or ethical issue.
It is theoretically or pra ically signif ant.
Question # 12 of 15 (Start time: 5:36:14 PM
Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is an exa ple of deception in business research?
Select correct option:
The obtaining of company material without permission.
The researcher wearing a disguise during an observation.
The researcher representing their research as being about a different
topic.
The researcher failing to ask permission to interview someone.
Making an inventory of variables
Specify the direction of relationship
Presenting findings
Making an inventory of propositions
Question # 14 of 15 (Start time: 05:37:39 M)
Total Marks: 1
| Which of the following is no | a function | f clearly identified research |
Select correct option:
They guide your literature search.
They keep you foc ed throughout the data collection period.
They make the scope of your research as wide as possible.
Question # 13 of 15 (Start time: 05:36:56 PM)
Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is not a feature of theoretical framework?
Select correct option:
They are linked together to help you construct a coherent argument.
Question # 15 of 15 (Start time: 05:38:23 PM)
Total Marks: 1
The study of research methods provides you with the knowledge and skills
you need
Select correct option:
To solve the problem
To improve the decision-making process
To understand the research of others
All of the given options
The facts that should be collected to measure a va iable, de d upon the
Select correct option:
Conceptual understanding
Dictionary meaning
Operational definition
All of the above
| Question # | 15 ( Start time: 03:0 | 7 AM ) Total Marks: 1 |
| Qualitative and Qu n ative Research a | the classifications of research on |
the basis of
Select correct option:
Use of the research
Time dimension
Techniques used
Purpose of the research
Question # 2 of 15 ( Start time: 03:04:12 AM ) Total Marks: 1
A literature review requires;
Select correct option:
planning
clear writing
good writing
All of the given option
Question # 3 of 15 ( Start time: 03:05:18 AM ) Total Marks: 1
A Literature review that summarizes what is known at a point in time is
known as:
Select correct option:
Narrative literature review
Systematic literaturereview
Integrative review
Historical review
Question # 4 of 15 ( Start time: 03:06:27 AM ) Total Mar 1
What is the final step of a scientific investigation?
Select correct option:
Analyze data
Collect data
Report thefindings
Determine whether the hypot esis was supp rted
| Question # | o 15 ( Start time: 03:0 | 1 AM ) Total Marks: 1 |
| According to Emp | m, which of the fo | wing is the ultimate source of all |
our concepts a d knowle
Select correct option:
Perceptions
Theory
Sensory experience
Logics and arguments
Question # 6 of 15 ( Start time: 03:07:30 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is an example of value-free research?
Select correct option:
Conscious favor
Sympathy for the loser
Unstructured interviewing
None of the given options
Question # 7 of 15 ( Start time: 03:08:53 AM ) Total Marks: 1
The independent variable is;
Select correct option:
The variable manipulated in order to observe its effects
The variable that is measured
The free spirited variable
A confounding variable
Question # 8 of 15 ( Start time: 03:10:16 AM ) Total Marks: 1
| The following journal article would be an example of | _ resear |
Applied
Interview
Basic
| Question # | 15 ( Start time: 03:1 | 3 AM ) Total Marks: 1 |
| The study of resear | methods provide you with the knowledge and skills | |
| you need | ||
| Select correct option: |
To solve the problem
To improve the decis -makingprocess
To understand the research of others
All of the given options
Question # 10 of 15 ( Start time: 03:12:07 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following true about the relationship between theory building
and data collection?
Select correct option:
When studies come out as expected, inductive support for the theory is
gained.
If an experiment fails, discarding the experiment is an example of affirming
the consequent.
When a hypothesis is not supported, virtually nothing has been learned about
the theory.
A good theory will be inclusive enough to explain every possible research
outcome.
Question # 11 of 15 ( Start time: 03:13:34 AM ) Total Marks: 1
The operational definition is also known as
Select correct option:
Working definition
Nominal definition
Conceptual definition
Dictionary definition
| Question # 12 of 15 ( Start me: 03:14:41 AM Total Mar | 1 |
|
| A theory is a coherent set of used as p nciples of explanations |
| |
| of the apparent relationsh | of ce tain observed phen | na. |
Disciplines
Propositions
Empirical Realities
None of the given options
Question # 13 of 15 Start time: 03:15:29 AM ) Total Marks: 1
| A concept is a gener | ed idea about ----- . |
A class of objects
Attributes
Occurrences
All of the given options
Question # 14 of 15 ( Start time: 03:16:26 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is included in research proposal?
Select correct option:
Data analysis
Results
Literature review
Conclusions section
Question # 15 of 15 ( Start time: 03:17:54 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Research questions are crucial because they will:
Select correct option:
Guide your decisions about what data to collect and from where.
Help you decide which research area interests you.
Ensure that your findings have external validity.
Prevent you from thinking about research strat gies.
Question # 1 of 15 ( Start time: 02:13:44 AM ) Total arks:
Null hypothesis states:
Select correct option:
Absence of relationship
Existence of relationship
The directi of relationship
Casual relations
Question # 2 of 15 ( Start tim 02:14:08 AM ) Total Marks: 1
What is the variable called that a researcher manipulates in an experiment?
Select correct option:
Dependent variable
Independent variable
Extraneous variable
None of the given options
Question # 3 of 15 ( Start time: 02:14:23 AM ) Total Marks: 1
The facts that should be collected to measure a variable, depend upon the
Select correct option:
Conceptual understanding
Dictionary meaning
Operational definition
All of the above
Question # 4 of 15 ( Start time: 02:14:54 AM ) Total Marks: 1
What is a cross-sectional research?
Select correct option:
A study of one particular section of society
A comparison of two or more variables over a long period of time
The collection of data from more than one case at one moment in time
One that is conducted when environment is uncertain
Question # 5 of 15 ( Start time: 02:15:13 AM ) Total M 1
Which one of the following tasks is NOT accom lished by t eoretical
framework?
Select correct option:
Elaborate the relationshi am ng the variables
Explain the logic underlyin he relation p between the variables.
Describe the nature, and direc on of the rel ionships among the variables.
Relates the previous studies.
| Question # 6 f 15 ( S | t me: 02:16:37 AM ) Total Marks: 1 |
| The elaboration of the variabl | in the theoretical framework addresses |
which type of qestions?
Select correct option:
Why we expect certain relationships to exist
How we expect certain relationships to exist
Both of the given questions
None of the given questions
Question # 7 of 15 ( Start time: 02:17:35 AM ) Total Marks: 1
What is the first step in the research process?
Select correct option:
Preliminary data collection
Problem definition
Theoretical framework
Define broad problem area
Question # 8 of 15 ( Start time: 02:18:33 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Qualitative and Quantitative Research are the classifications of research on
the basis of
Select correct option:
Use of the research
Time dimension
Techniques used
Purpose of the research
Question # 9 of 15 ( Start time: 02:18:46 AM ) Total Marks:
Quantitative researcher's preoccupation with general zation s an attempt
to:
Select correct option:
Develop the law like findings of the natural sciences.
Boost their chances of publication.
| Enhance t | nternal validity of th | research. |
| Demonstrate the c | plex techniques of statistical analysis. |
Question # 10 of 15 ( Start tim 02:19:13 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is an example of value-free research?
Select correct option:
Conscious favor
Sympathy for the loser
Unstructured interviewing
None of the given options
Question # 11 of 15 ( Start time: 02:20:01 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Ms. Roshi has been coordinating the Annual Festival at her school for the
last several years. She wants to be sure the students and parents enjoy the
festival again this year. On which source is she LEAST likely to rely when
making decisions about what to do?
Select correct option:
Tradition
Personal experience
Research
Expert opinion
Question # 12 of 15 ( Start time: 02:21:25 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is NOT a legitimate research problem as stated?
Select correct option:
| What is the relationship between the number of books children re | and |
Should competitive games be banned from elementary schools?
What does it mean to be a special needs child "included" in Ms. Amara's
fourth grade class?
| What are the major legal pr ciples applied to | ucational | ses decided by |
| Question # 13 of 15 ( Start t | : 02:22:45 A | ) Total Marks:1 |
| What is the basis of the Scientific | ethod? | |
| Select corre | option: |
To test hypotheses in co s that are condusive to its success.
To formulate a research problem nd disprove the hypothesis.
To formulate a research problem, test the hypothesis in carefully controlled
conditions that challenge the hypothesis.
To test hypotheses and if they are disproved, they should be abandoned
completely.
Question # 14 of 15 ( Start time: 02:23:54 AM ) Total Marks: 1
What is the final step of a scientific investigation?
Select correct option:
Analyze data
Collect data
Question # 3 of 15 ( Start time: 01:40:30 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is not a feature of theoretical framework?
Select correct option:
Making an inventory of variables
Specify the direction of relationship
Report the findings
Determine whether the hypothesis was supported
Question # 15 of 15 ( Start time: 02:25:23 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a good research topic?
Select correct option:
It is ethical.
It can be investigated through the collection and analysis of data.
It focuses on a philosophical or ethical issue.
It is theoretically or practically significant.
Question # 1 of 15 ( Start time: 01:38:28 AM ) Total Marks: 1
If a researcher is studying the effect of using laptops in his classr om to
| ascertain their merit and worth, he is likely conducting | h type of |
Select correct option:
Basic
Applied
Evaluation
Experimental
Question # of 15 ( Start time: 01:3 40 AM ) Total Marks: 1
What is oppo ite o avariable?
Select correct ption:
A constant
An extraneous variable
A dependent variable
A data set
Question # 7 of 15 ( Start time: 01:45:06 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is most beneficial to read in an article?
Select correct option:
Methods
Introduction
Figures
Presenting findings
Making an inventory of propositions
Question # 4 of 15 ( Start time: 01:41:50 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is a discretevariable?
Select correct option:
Age
Nationality
Test score
Income
Question # 5 of 15 ( Start time: 01:42:35 AM ) Total Marks: 1
In we collect same type of information from diffe nt
respondents in different times.
Select correct option:
Cohort study
Time series Research
Panel study
Case studies
Question # 6 of 15 ( Start time: 0 44:02 AM ) otal Marks: 1
Why, as sc tists, do we not want t ely on authority for explanations?
Select correc opt
Those in authority are often wron
Those in authority cannot be challenged.
Those in authority rely too much on objective information.
Those in authority often have no common sense.
References
Question # 8 of 15 ( Start time: 01:45:35 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Why do you need to review the existing literature?
Select correct option:
To give your dissertation a proper academic appearance, with lots of
references
Because without it, you could never reach the required word-count
To find out what is already known about your area of interest
To help in your general studying
Question # 9 of 15 ( Start time: 01:46:10 AM ) Total Marks:
Which of the following is the least appropriate research prob m?
Select correct option:
Does studying Latin improve the standardized vocabulary t s scores of
seventh grade students?
Does drilling fifth grade students with multi ication f ts improve their
standardized test scores?
| What is the relationship etween students' math | tudes and math |
Should students have access to controversial novels in school?
Question # 10 of Start time: 01:47:19 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Null hypothes s states
Select correct option:
Absence of relationship
Existence of relationship
The direction of relationship
Casual relationship
Question # 11 of 15 ( Start time: 01:48:49 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Basic and Applied Research are the classifications of research on the basis
of:
Select correct option:
Use of the research
Time dimension
Techniques used
Purpose of the research
Question # 12 of 15 ( Start time: 01:50:18 AM ) Total Marks: 1
What is a cross-sectional research?
Select correct option:
A study of one particular section of society
A comparison of two or more variables over a long period of time
The collection of data from more than one case at one moment in tim
One that is conducted when environment is uncertain
Question # 13 of 15 ( Start time: 01:51:43 AM Total Marks: 1
| What is the variable called that a researcher m | ipulates in an experiment? |
Dependent variable
Independent variable
Extraneous variable
None of the given options
Question # 14 of Start time: 01:52:48 AM ) Total Marks: 1
| Which of the following | a part of research design? |
Data collection technique
Tool of data collect
Objectives of the study
Data processing and analysis
Question # 15 of 15 ( Start time: 01:54:06 AM ) Total Marks: 1
A variable is:
Select correct option:
Any characteristic of interest that can take on more than one value
Defined as the groups manipulated in experimental research
The complete set of scores we use in statistical analysis
Completely specified only in observational research
Question # 1 of 15 ( Start time: 01:09:24 AM ) Total Marks: 1
If a researcher was studying the use of various instructional approaches to
the "multiple intelligences" of his students, he is likely to be conducting
which type of research?
Select correct option:
Basic
Applied
Evaluation
Grounded theory
Question # 2 of 15 ( Start time: 01:10:00 AM ) Total Marks:
If a measure is consistent over multiple occasions, has:
Select correct option:
Inter-rater reliability
Construct validity
Internal validity
Test-retest reliability
| Question # 3 o | Start time: 01:11:3 AM ) Total Marks: 1 |
| Why do you n ed to re | the existing iterature? |
To give your dissertation a proper academic appearance, with lots of
references
Because without it, y u could never reach the required word-count
To find out what is already known about your area of interest
To help in your general studying
Question # 4 of 15 ( Start time: 01:12:12 AM ) Total Marks: 1
All of the following are true about theories, except;
Select correct option:
They organize and summarize existing knowledge about a topic.
They are tentative until the facts prove them true.
They provide possible explanations for the phenomenon under study
They lead to testable hypotheses through the process of deduction.
Question # 5 of 15 ( Start time: 01:13:02 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Quantitative social researchers rarely claim to have established causality
because:
Select correct option:
They are more concerned with publishing the results of their reliability
tests.
They do not believe that this is an appropriate goal to be striving for.
They keep forgetting which of the variables they have manipulat .
They tend to use cross-sectional designs, which produce only correlations.
Question # 6 of 15 ( Start time: 01:14:12 AM ) Tota Marks: 1
"Skepticism" is a norm of science. It is better explai d by which the
following statement?
Select correct option:
| Combining the previous k | wled e |
| Critical reading of the previous researches | |
| Locating re | rch reports in libraries |
Question # 7 o 15 ( Sta 01:15:12 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following provides a olid basis foundation for the theoretical
framework?
Select correct option:
Survey
Literature Review
Experiment
Referencing
Question # 8 of 15 ( Start time: 01:15:54 AM ) Total Marks: 1
------------------surveys are more impersonal than face-to-face interviews.
Select correct option:
Mail
Recorded Interview
Focus group
Telephone
Question # 9 of 15 ( Start time: 01:17:01 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is not a feature of theoretical framework?
Select correct option:
Making an inventory of variables
Specify the direction of relationship
Presenting findings
Making an inventory of propositions
Question # 10 of 15 ( Start time: 01:17:40 AM ) Total Mark 1
In definition, a concept is explained in erms of oth r concepts.
Select correct option:
Operational definition
Working definition
Theoretical definition
None of the given options
| Question # 11 of | Start time: 01:18 9 AM ) Total Marks: 1 |
| To explain, predict, and | ntrol phenomena are the goal |
of----------------------
Select correct option:
Tradition
Inductive logic
Deductive logic
The scientific method
Question # 12 of 15 ( Start time: 01:19:08 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a good research topic?
Select correct option:
It is ethical.
It can be investigated through the collection and analysis of data.
It focuses on a philosophical or ethical issue.
It is theoretically or practically significant.
Question # 13 of 15 ( Start time: 01:19:47 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is a concept?
Select correct option:
Leadership.
Total Quality Management.
Human Resource Management.
All of the given options
Question # 14 of 15 ( Start time: 01:20:14 AM ) Total arks: 1
The most critical areas of an article to read is;
Select correct option:
Results section
Introduction
Abstract
Limitations
Question # of 15 ( Start time: :20:58 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Quantitative resear her's preoccupati n with generalization is an attempt
to:
Select correct option:
Develop the law like findings of the natural sciences.
Boost their chances of publication.
Enhance the internal validity of their research.
Demonstrate the complex techniques of statistical analysis.
Question # 1 of 15 ( Start time: 10:53:07 AM )
The most critical areas of an article to read is;
Select correct option:
Total Marks: 1
Results section
Introduction
Abstract
Limitations
Question # 2 of 15 ( Start time: 10:53:51 AM )
What type of process research is?
Select correct option:
A process to discover the truth
A process to invent the machines
A process to make new medicines
A process to create theories
Question # 3 of 15 ( Start time: 10:54:42 AM )
Total Marks: 1
Total M s: 1
Before a researcher specified the relationship mong variables, he must
have a (an):
Select correct option:
Inventory of variables
Inventory of proposition
Arrangement of propositions
Schematic diagram
| Question # 4 of 1 | Start time: 10:5 | 6 AM ) | Total Marks: 1 |
| Which one of he follo | s not an assumption of science? | ||
| Select correct option: |
There are reoccurri patterns in the world.
Events happen because of preceding causes.
We can discover solutions to problems of interest.
Theoretical explanations must agree with common sense.
Question # 5 of 15 ( Start time: 10:56:03 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Quantitative researcher's preoccupation with generalization is an attempt
to:
Select correct option:
Develop the law like findings of the natural sciences.
Boost their chances of publication.
Enhance the internal validity of their research.
Demonstrate the complex techniques of statistical analysis.
Question # 6 of 15 ( Start time: 10:56:48 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which one of the following creates problems of measurements of a concept?
Select correct option:
Unambiguous meanings
Vague meanings
Clear meanings
Dictionary meanings
| Question # 7 of 15 ( Start time: 10:57:31 AM ) | Total Marks: 1 | ree rese ch? |
Conscious favor
| Sympathy f | he loser |
|
| Unstructured inte | i | ing |
None of the given options
Question # 8 of 15 Start time: 10:58:22 AM ) Total Marks: 1
The elaboration of th variables in the theoretical framework addresses
which type of qestions?
Select correct option:
Why we expect certain relationships to exist
How we expect certain relationships to exist
Both of the given questions
None of the given questions
Question # 9 of 15 ( Start time: 10:58:59 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is at the highest level of abstraction?
Select correct option:
Concept
Proposition
Theory
Hypothesis
| Question # 10 of 15 ( Start time: 11:00:19 AM ) | Total Marks: 1 |
| Which of the following is the best hypothesis statement to ddress th | |
| research question, "What impact will the new adve ising ca | aign have on |
use of Brand B?"
Select correct option:
The new advertising campaign will impact Brand B usage.
| The new advertising cam | gn will increase rand B |
|
| The new advertising campai | will cause inc eased Brand B usage at the |
|
| expense of |
| |
| The new adv rtis | mpaign will incre | e Brand B's market penetration. |
Question # 11 of 15 ( Start time: :01:25 AM )
Which of following statement is true?
Select correct option:
Total Marks: 1
Theory and Research are dichotomous
Theory and Research are interrelated
There is no difference between Theory and Research
None of the given statements is true
Question # 12 of 15 ( Start time: 11:02:15 AM ) Total Marks: 1
According to Empiricism, which of the following is the ultimate source of all
our concepts and knowledge?
Select correct option:
Perceptions
Theory
Sensory experience
Logics and arguments
Question # 13 of 15 ( Start time: 11:03:17 AM )
What is the final step of a scientific investigation?
Select correct option:
Analyze data
Collect data
Report thefindings
Determine whether the hyp thesis was suppo d
To al Marks: 1
| Question # 14 of 15 ( Start ti e 11:04:06 A | ) | Total Marks: 1 |
| Ms.Roshi has been coordinating | e Annual F | ival at her school for the |
| last several | ars. She wantsto be | e the students and parents enjoy the |
| festival again this e | On which sourc | she LEAST likely to rely when |
making decisions abouth t o do?
Select correct option:
Tradition
Personal experience
Research
Expert opinion
Question # 15 of 15 ( Start time: 11:04:39 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Preliminary Data Collection may be considered as part of ----------------.
Select correct option:
Descriptive research
Explananory research
Exploratory research
All of the given options
Question # 1 of 15 ( Start time: 03:10:36 PM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is an example of value-free research?
Select correct option:
Conscious favor
Sympathy for the loser
Unstructured interviewing
None of the given options
Question # 2 of 15 ( Start time: 03:11:13 PM ) Tota Marks:
A literature review requires;
Select correct option:
planning
clear w riting
good writing
All of the given option
| Question # | o 15 ( Start time: 03:1 | 2 PM ) Total Marks: 1 |
| What type of proc s | esearch is? |
A process to discover the truth
A process to invent the machines
A process to make new medicines
A process to create t ries
Question # 4 of 15 ( Start time: 03:12:15 PM ) Total
Why do you need to review the existing literature?
Select correct option:
To give your dissertation a proper academic appearance, with lots of
references
Because without it, you could never reach the required word-count
To find out what is already know n about your area o interest
To help in your general studying
Question # 5 of 15 ( Start time: 03:13:19 PM ) Total Marks: 1
What is the final step of a scientific investigation?
Select correct option:
Analyze data
Collect data
Report thefindings
Determine w hether the hypothesis w as supported
Question # 6 of 15 ( Start time: 03:13:51 PM ) Total Marks: 1
When we say that science is parsimonious, we mean that:
Select correct option:
Scientific theories are based on law s.
We must be careful because causes can occur afte s ec effects.
The best scientific theories are those that offer the simplest explanations
for a law.
Science accurately describes a wide range of behavior.
| Question # 8 of 15 ( Start time: 03:15 2 PM ) Tot | Marks: 1 |
| Which of the followingis a | scre e variable? |
Age
Nationality
Test score
Income
Question # 9 of 15 ( Start time: 03:16:06 PM ) Total Marks: 1
"Skepticism" is a no m of science. It is better explained by which of the
following
statement?
Select correct option:
Combining the previous know ledge
Critical reading of the previous researches
Providing the proper references of qouted text
Locating research reports in libraries
Question # 10 of 15 ( Start time: 03:16:39 PM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of following statement is true?
Select correct option:
Theory and Research are dichotomous
Theory and Research are interrelated
There is no difference between Theory and Researc
None of the given statements is true
Question # 11 of 15 ( Start time: 03:17:05 PM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following should not be a consideration in writing a proposal?
Select correct option:
Understanding the problem situation
The appearance/form of the proposal
Responding to every element exactly as specified by the client
Knowing as much as possible about the proposal re pients
Question # 12 of 15 ( tart time: 03:17:59 PM Total Marks: 1
The operational definitio is a so known as
Select correct option:
Working definition
Nominal de tion
Conceptual definiti
Dictionary def nition
Question # 13 of 15 ( Start time: 03:18:34 PM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following statements is true?
Select correct option
All concepts are variables and all variables are concepts
All variables are concepts but all concepts are not variable
All concepts are variable but all variables are not concepts
None of the above
Question # 14 of 15 ( Start time: 03:19:24 PM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is Not included in research proposal?
Select correct option:
Problem Statement
Research Design
Results
Bibliography
Question # 15 of 15 (Start time: 03:20:16 PM ) Total Marks: 1
The scientific method is preferred over other ways of knowing because it is
more;
Select correct option:
Reliable
Systematic
Accurate
All of the given options
Question # 1 of 15 ( Start time: 10:36:31 AM ) Tota Marks: 1
Which of the following is not an unethical issue?
Select correct option:
Invoicing irregularities
Avoiding legal liability
Misrepresen ing re s
None of the given options
Question # 2 of 15 ( rt time: 10:36:58 AM ) Total Marks:1
What research is?
Select correct option:
A lab experiment
A report
A systematic Enquiry
A survey
Question # 3 of 15 ( Start time: 10:37:15 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Theoretical framework is trying to develop a model of our study.
Select correct option:
Functional
The complete set of scores we use in statistical analysis
Completely specified only in observational research
Question # 6 of 15 ( Start time: 10:38:01 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Conceptual
Operational
Practical
Question # 4 of 15 ( Start time: 10:37:33 AM ) Total Ma s: 1
Which of the following is Not included in the Introduction s ction of a
Research proposal?
Select correct option:
Background of the stu y
Objectives
Sampling technique
Significance
Question # 5 of 1 ( tart time: 10:37: 6 AM ) Total Marks: 1
A variable is:
Select correct option
Any characteristic of interest that can take on more than one value
Defined as the groups manipulated in experimental research
After a researcher has stated the specific problem to be studied in an
experiment, he must then develop a(n):
Select correct option:
Theory
Conclusion
Measurement
Instrument
Hypothesis
Summary of the data
Question # 7 of 15 ( Start time: 10:38:15 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Ms. Roshi has been coordinating the Annual Festival at h school fo he
last several years. She wants to be sure the studen s and par nts enjoy the
festival again this year. On which source is she LEA T likely to r y when
making decisions about what to do?
Select correct option:
Tradition
Personal experience
Research
Expert opinion
Question # 8 of 15 ( Start time: 1 38:29 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following terms represents the most general, broad concept?
Select correct option:
Test
Assessment
Question # 9 of 15 ( Start time: 10:38:55 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is Not a technique to narrow down the broad problem
area?
Select correct option:
Doing a literature survey
Ask questions from the knowledgeable persons
Consider topic in specific context
Decide about the sample
Question # 10 of 15 ( Start time: 10:40:06 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Which of the following activities is Not included in debriefing?
Select correct option:
Explanation of any deception
Post study result sharing
Obtaining informed consent
Description of the purpose of study
| Question # 11 of 15 ( Start ti e 10:41:22 A | ) Total Marks: 1 |
| Select corre | option: |
The variable manipulated in order to observe its effects
The variable that is measured
The free spirited variable
A confounding variable
Question # 12 of 15 Start time: 10:41:38 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Logical relationship among the factors identified in the literature review is
called .
Select correct option:
Theatrical framework
Problem statement
None of the given options
Question # 13 of 15 ( Start time: 10:42:55 AM ) Total Marks: 1
The term "Extrapolation" is better explained by the statement:
Select correct option:
Facts lead to the rejection of theory
Identification of the gap in knowledge
Theory predicts facts
None of the given options
Question # 14 of 15 ( Start time: 10:43:14 AM ) Total Marks
Which of the following is most helpful in defining resea ch probl ?
Select correct option:
Hypothesis
Preliminary data collection
Descriptive research
Theoretical framework
| Question # | of 15 ( Start time: | :44:17 AM ) Total Marks: 1 |
| If a measure is c | stent over multi | occasions, it has: |
Select correct option:
Inter-rater reliability
Construct validity
Internal validity
Test-retest reliability
Research may differ along a series of dimensions. Which of the following
may be applied to this statement?
Select correct option:
The type of data collected.
The data-collection technique.
The level of manipulation used to elicit data collection.
All of the given options
Quiz Start Time: 05:28 PM
Question # 1 of 15 (Start time: 05:28:49 PM)
Total Marks: 1
Null hypothesis states:
Select correct option:
Absence of relationship
Existence of relationship
The direction of rel tionship
Casual relationship
Question # 2 of 15 (Start time: 05:29:46 PM)
Total Marks: 1
Which of the following statements is true?
Select correct option:
All concepts are variables and all variables are concepts
A survey
Question # 4 of 15 (Start time: 05:30:56 PM)
All variables are concepts but all concepts are not variable
All concepts are variable but all variables are not concepts
None of the above
Question # 3 of 15 (Sta time: 05:3 24 PM)
Total Marks: 1
What research is?
Select correct option:
A lab experiment
A report
A systematic Enquiry
Total Marks: 1
A literature review requires;
Select correct option:
Planning
Income
Question # 6 of 15 (Start time: 05:31:50 PM)
Total Marks: 1
A good qualitative problem statement:
Clear writing
Good writing
All of the given option
Question # 5 of 15 (Start time: 05:31:23 PM)
Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is a d c ete variable?
Select corre option:
Age
Nationality
Test score
Select correct option:
Defines the independent and dependent variables
Question # 8 of 15 (Start time: 05:33:03 PM)
Conveys a sense of emerging design
Specifies a research hypothesis to be tested
Specifies the relationship between variables that the researcher expects to
find.
Question # 7 of 15 (Start time: 05:32:32 PM)
Total Marks: 1
The application of the scientific method to the study of business problems
is called;
Select correct option:
Inductive reasoni
Deductive reasoning
Business research
Grounded theory
Conclusion
Hypothesis
Summary of the data
Question # 9 of 15 (Start time: 05:33:30 PM)
Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is no i cluded in re earch proposal?
Select corr t option:
Problem Statement
Research Design
Results
Total Marks: 1
After a researcher has stated the specific problem to be studied in an
experiment, he must then develop a (n):
Select correct option:
Theory
Bibliography
Question # 10 of 15 (Start time: 05:34:46 PM)
Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is not an example of deception?
Select correct option:
A part of the truth is not communicated to the respondent
To observe code of ethics
Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is an example of deception in business research?
Select correct option:
The obtaining of company material without permission.
To create bias between respondents before the survey
Question # 11 of 15 (Start time: 05:35:39 PM)
Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic o a good res rch topic?
Select correct option:
It is ethical.
It can be investigated through the collectio nd analysis of data.
It focuses on a philosophical or ethical issue.
It is theoretically or practically gnificant.
Question # 12 of 15 (Start time: 05:36:14 PM)
The researcher wearing a disguise during an observation.
Select correct option:
They guide your literature search.
They keep you focused throughout the data collection period.
The researcher representing their research as being about a different
topic.
The researcher failing to ask permission to interview someone.
Question # 13 of 15 (Start time: 05:36:56 PM)
Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is not a feature of theoretical framework
Select correct option:
Making an inventory of variables
Specify the direction of elationship
Presenting findings
Making an ventory of proposition
Question # 14 of 15 (S i e: 05:37:39 PM)
Total Marks: 1
Which of the follow g is not a function of clearly identified research
questions?
Asslam O Alikum
STA630 - Research Methods
Mega Quiz file
Solved By Muhammad Afaaq
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They make the scope of your research as wide as possible.
They are linked together to help you construct a coherent argument.
Question # 15 of 15 (Start time: 05:38:23 PM)
Total Marks: 1
The study of research methods provides you with the knowledge and skills
you need
Select correctoption:
To solve the problem
To improve the decision-making process
To understand the resea ch of others
All of the given options
STA630 - Research Methods
Mega Quiz file
Solved By Muhammad Afaaq
Afaaqtariq233@gmail.com
Afaaq_tariq@yahoo.com
Afaaq_tariq@yahoo.com
Remember Me in Your Prayers
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Ch Muhammad Afaaq (Arrein)
MBA (Finance) Completed
Islamabad
Afaaq_Tariq@yahoo.com
For latest assignments solved quizzes files GDB solve n
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Asslam O Alikum
STA630- Research Methods mega file 7 final term sure solved papers with reference
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Remember Me In Your Prayers
Best regard’s
Muhammad Afaaq
Mba 3 rd Finance Group
Afaaq_Tariq@yahoo.com
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FINALTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2010
AFAAQ_TARIQ@YAHOO.COM
STA630- Research Methods (Session - 4)
Ref No: 1518507
Time: 90 min
Marks: 69
Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
An inductive logic is one that:
► Involves testing as explicitly defined hypothesis
► Does not allow for findings to feed back into the body of knowledge.
► Uses quantitative methods whenever possible.
► Allows theory to emerge out of the data.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199202959/01student/cqs/ch01/
MCQ # 03
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following research questions is BEST answered using action research?
► How can I improve the interaction of students of different ethnicity in my class?
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381508.cw/index.html
| MCQ # |
3
► What factors influence student interaction in multiethnic classes?
► Is there a difference between male and female acceptance of others in multiethnic
classes?
► How do students from Asian countries adjust to classroom practices in U.S.
schools?
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is characteristic of action research?
► Variables are tightly controlled.
► Results are generalizable.
► Results demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships.
► Data are usually qualitative.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381508.cw/index.html
MCQ # 05
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Research may differ along a series of dimensions. Which of the following may be applied
to this statement?
► The level of manipulation used to elicit data collection.
► The data-collection technique.
► The type of data collected.
► Type, technique and manipulation of data collection.
http://www.uk.sagepub.com/breakwell/downloads/mcq/mcq_01/mcq_01.htm
MCQ # 06
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT a drawback to free response items?
► Results from free response items take longer to analyze.
► Many participants tend not to answer free response items.
► Free response items allow participants to add information that was not directly
requested.
► Many participants tend to be less truthful in free response items.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381582.cw/index.html
MCQ # 15
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is an example of a question about normative standards and
values?
► How many workers are employed at this plant?
► What is your attitude towards the management at this plant?
► Do you always cast your vote in trade union elections?
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch10/
MCQ # 03
| ► Are you aware of the main features of the European Union | Directive for |
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT an example of a problem with using social survey
research to investigate behaviour?
► Respondents tend to answer by giving the most socially desirable answer.
► Respondents may inadvertently omit key terms in the question.
► Respondents may not give an honest reply to what they see as a threatening
question.
► Respondents may be unwilling to reveal information as they believe they
are likely to be identified.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch11/
MCQ # 01
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is an example of a dilemma that might face feminist business
researchers conducting qualitative interviews with women?
► What role to adopt while interviewing male managers?
► How many female employees should be interviewed for a representative sample?
► How to overcome the issue of false consciousness?
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch18/
MCQ # 09
► What data to use while publishing findings?
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT characteristic of qualitative data?
► Rich descriptions
► Concise
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9871/2527149.cw/content/index#
topofquiz1
MCQ # 02
► Voluminous
► Unorganized
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Why is describing the context equally, as important aspect of qualitative data analysis as
is describing the participants?
► Descriptions of context are more objective than descriptions of participants.
► Descriptions of context are based on facts, not perceptions.
► Participants' behavior cannot be separated from the context in which it occurs.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9871/2527206.cw/index.html
MCQ # 04
► Participants are the context.
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which one is not the part of non reactive research?
► Physical traces
► Archives
► Observations
► Interviews
Varieties of Non-Reactive Observations
Physical Traces:
Archives:
Observations:
PAGE 124
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The information gained by someone other than researcher conducting the study is called
.
► Primary data
► Reliable data
► Valid data
► Secondary data
Secondary data refer to information gathered by someone other than the researcher
conducting the present study.
PAGE # 131
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is not an example of historical comparative research?
► Social Forms
► Economic Forms
► Civil Wars
► Turnover
PAGE # 142,143
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following would you recommend to a graduate student to ensure the quality
of his research report?
► Write a detailed explanation of the methods used to investigate the problem.
► Explicitly state underlying assumptions related to the topic.
► Acknowledge the limitations of generalizability while assisting the reader in
understanding the transferability of the findings.
► Detailed method, assumptions and limitation.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381491.cw/index.html
MCQ # 02
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In which of the following Tests, we usually go for personal interviewing to test the
questionnaire?
► Test Run
► Pilot Test
Pilot testing also called pre-testing means small scale trial run of a particular component;
here we are referring to pilot testing of the questionnaire.
PAGE # 80
► Post Hoc Test
► T- Test
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In which of the following Tests, we should come to know, does a questionnaire look like
an integrated unit?
► Test Run
► Pilot Test
PAGE # 80, 81
A pilot plant would be a way of testing the integrated unit, studying its operational
problems, testing design
► Post Hoc Test
► T- Test
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is that element or set of elements considered for selection in some
stage of sampling?
► Parameter
► Sampling Unit
A sampling unit is that element or set of elements considered for selection in some stage
of sampling.
PAGE 89
► Observation Unit
► Statistic
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
If you are going on the street and suddenly a TV reporter starts taking your interview
regarding any issue, which of the following sampling technique is used by the TV
reporter?
► Purposive Sampling
► Snowball Sampling
► Convenience Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling (also called haphazard or accidental sampling) refers to sampling
by obtaining units or people who are most conveniently available. For example, it may be
convenient and economical to sample employees in companies in a nearby area, sample
from a pool of friends and neighbors. The person-on-the street interview conducted by
TV programs is another example. TV interviewers go on the street with camera and
microphone to talk to few people who are convenient to interview. The people walking
past a TV studio in thee middle of the day do not represent everyone (homemakers,
people in the rural areas). Likewise, TV interviewers select people who look “normal” to
them and avoid people who are unattractive, poor, very old, or inarticulate.
PAGE # 90
► Quota Sampling
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Sampling in qualitative research is similar to which type of sampling in quantitative
research?
► Simple random sampling
► Systematic sampling
► Quota sampling
► Purposive sampling
Sampling in qualitative research is similar to which type of sampling in quantitative
research?
It is similar to purposive sampling
http://www.google.com.pk/#sclient=psy&hl=en&biw=800&bih=411&q=Sampling+in+q
ualitative+research+is+similar+to+Purposive+sampling&aq=&aqi=&aql=&oq=&pbx=1
&fp=791244bbdd532714
and Mixed - Chapter 9 ...
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT a type of Non-random sampling?
► Cluster sampling
PAGE # 90, 91, AND 93
► Convenience sampling
► Quota sampling
► Purposive sampling
Question No: 22 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Historical-Comparative researchers sometimes use;
► Time-series data
► Primary data
► Secondary data
Historical-comparative researchers often use secondary sources or different data types in
combination
PAGE # 151
► Analyzed data
Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following refers to the partials replicate or reproduce the same relationship
that existed in the bivariate table before considering the control variable?
► Replication pattern
The replication pattern is the easiest to understand. It is when the partials replicate or
reproduce the same relationship that existed in the bivariate table before considering the
control variable.
AFTER OPEN DA LINK CLICK ON 1ST [DOC] Sampling in Quantitative, Qualitative,
PAGE # 110
► Specification pattern
► Suppressor variable pattern
► Negative linear relationship
Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
As a researcher you need Not to;
► Master the literature
► Take numerous detailed notes
► Create a bibliography list
► Learn your findings
As the researcher masters the literature and takes numerous detailed notes, he or she
completes many specific tasks: creating a bibliography list
PAGE # 147
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following relates with an abstract model of underlying relations or causal
mechanism?
► Analysis
► Synthesis
Synthesis links specific evidence with an abstract model of underlying relations or causal
mechanism.
PAGE # 148
► Results
► Findings
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following control techniques available to the researcher, controls both
known and unknown variables?
► Building the extraneous variable into the design
► Matching
► Random assignment
Random assignment is the most important technique that can be used to control
confounding variables because it has the ability to control for both known and unknown
confounding extraneous variables.
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/lectures/lec9.htm
Constructs in content analysis are operationalizing with a coding system, a set of
instructions or rules on how to systematically observe and record content from text.
Page # 126
► Time Duration
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What is the particular advantage of secondary analysis to business students?
► It is less challenging intellectually
► It guarantees positive results
► It is less expensive and less time consuming than primary
analysis
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch13/
► Analysis of covariance
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is more operational with the help of coding system?
► External Appearance
► Count Behaviors
► Content analysis
MCQ # 02
► It enables students to gain experience of the workplace
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following similarity is found in Qualitative research and Survey research?
► Examine topics primarily from the participants' perspectives
► They are guided by predetermined variables to study.
► They are descriptive research methods.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381582.cw/index.html
MCQ # 03
► Have large sample sizes.
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A single element or group of elements that is eligible for selection via the sampling
process is called a:
► Sampling panel
► Sampling unit
A sampling unit is that element or set of elements considered for selection in some stage
of sampling.
PAGE # 89
► Sampling error
► Sampling quota
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Codes are rules for data.
► Classifying
► Interpreting
► Recording
► All of the given options
ALTHOUGH CODES ARE GENERALLY CONSIDERED TO BE NUMERICAL
SYMBOLS, THEY ARE MORE BROADLY DEFINED AS THE RULES FOR
INTERPRETING, CLASSIFYING, AND RECORDING DATA.
PAGE # 99
Question No: 32 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following contain the captions for the rows of a table?
► Boxheads
► Footnotes
► Source notes
► None of the given options
A table may contain a caption, row groups, and column groups. A row group contains
rows, while a column group contains columns. Rows and columns contain cells. Tables
are rendered as layers in a specified order from the bottom up: table, column groups,
columns, row groups, rows, and cells.
http://reference.sitepoint.com/css/tableformatting
Question No: 33 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The experimental design that uses one-group, a treatment, and a posttest is called
.
► One-shot case study design
One-shot Case Study Design: Also called the one-group posttest-only design, the oneshot case study design has only one group, a treatment, and a posttest
PAGE #117
► Pretest posttest control group design
► Solomon four-group design
► One-group pretest posttest design
Question No: 34 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When a researcher tries to say that the results of a test market in Karachi will hold in a
national rollout of the new product, this researcher is concerned with:
► Internal validity
► The repeated measures effect
► Constant error
► External validity
External validity is the ability to generalize experimental findings to real life situations.
PAGE 122
Question No: 35 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Obtaining secondary data is typically and expensive than obtaining primary
data.
► Faster; more
► Slower; more
► Faster; less
Page # 131
► Slower; less
Question No: 36 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is a disadvantage of secondary data?
► User has no control over their reliability and validity
► Inability to convert the data
► Typically require additional access to research respondents
► All of the given options
Question No: 37 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The study of documents used by writers is a method of .
► In-depth analysis
► Time series analysis
► Regression analysis
► None of the given options
Content analysis is also the study of documents through which the writers try to
communicate, though some of the documents (like population census) may simply
contain figures.
Page # 129
Question No: 38 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Historical-Comparative research focuses on:
► Its broad historical processes
► Comparing forms
► Tracing the development of social forms
► All of the given options
Historical-Comparative research focuses on:
• Tracing the development of social forms (patterns) overtime as well as its broad its
broad historical processes, and
• Comparing those forms and its developmental processes across cultures
(countries/nations).
Page # 142
Question No: 39 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When a manufacturer studies his most successful retailer in depth in order to determine
some better ideas for displaying bicycles in its retail stores, this is an example of:
► An experiment
► A test market
► A case study
Case study: It is an in-depth analysis of a unit which could be an individual person, a
couple, a group, or an organization
PAGE # 38
► Causal research
Question No: 40 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
An interview conducted by a trained moderator among a small group of respondents in an
unstructured and natural manner is a .
► Depth interview
► Focus group
Focus group an interview conducted by a trained moderator among a small group of
respondents in an unstructured and natural manner
http://books.google.com.pk/books?
id=TKb8iORscegC&pg=PA145&lpg=PA145&dq=An+interview+conducted+by+a+train
ed+moderator+among+a+small+group+of+respondents+in+an+unstructured+and+natura
l+manner+is+a+Focus+group&source=bl&ots=xSwXM_YgdX&sig=vsawE2ctZCs4EW
_ajLWVzulC8yY&hl=en&ei=aaVOTZqoKtOChQed3JmDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
q=An%20interview%20conducted%20by%20a%20trained%20moderator%20among
%20a%20small%20group%20of%20respondents%20in%20an%20unstructured%20and
%20natural%20manner%20is%20a%20Focus%20group&f=false
► Case study
► None of the given options
Question No: 41 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following represents this reference: Riley, T., & Brecht, M. L. (1998). The
success in mentoring process. In R. Williams (Ed.) Mentoring and career success. pp.
129-150. New York: Wilson Press.
► Edited book
► Book by a single author
► Book by more than one author
► Chapter in an edited book
Chapter in an edited book
This is an article written by single or multiple authors and is printed in the edited book.
Riley, T., & Brecht, M. L. (1998). The success in mentoring process. In R. Williams
(Ed.) Mentoring and career success. pp. 129-150. New York: Wilson Press.
Page # 165
Question No: 42 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Following are the characteristics of the research EXCEPT:
► Systematic
► Data based
► Subjective approach
Research may be considered as an organized, systematic, data based, critical, objective,
scientific inquiry
Page # 02
► Scientific inquiry
Question No: 43 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A variable that is likely to develop with the passage of time between the independent and
dependent variable is called:
► Moderating Variable
► Intervening Variable
Intervening Variables
A basic causal relationship requires only independent and dependent variable.
Page # 20
► Confounding Variable
► Predictor Variable
Question No: 44 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which type of research is involved in preliminary data collection stage?
► Descriptive
► Exploratory
Preliminary Data Collection
This step may be considered as part of the exploratory research.
Page # 36
► Explanatory
► Cannot be determined at this stage of research
Question No: 45 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which one of the following is NOT a type of scales used in measurement of concepts?
► Normal Scale
It is traditional to classify scales of measurement on the basis of the mathematical
comparisons that are allowable with these scales. Four types of scales are nominal,
ordinal, interval, and ratio.
Page # 53
► Ordinal Scale
► Interval scale
► Ratio Scale
Question No: 46 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A measure is reliable if it provides consistent .
► Hypothesis
► Results
A measure is reliable if it provides consistent results
http://books.google.com.pk/books?
id=Cf1D0DvWXI8C&pg=PA364&lpg=PA364&dq=A+measure+is+reliable+if+it+provi
des+consistent+results&source=bl&ots=lbSOKx-1DA&sig=boaxoP-O26BcJezqkZ-
0El29dOs&hl=en&ei=uKlOTeO9HaOShAeI5ZGBBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=3&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=A%20measure%20is%20reliable
%20if%20it%20provides%20consistent%20results&f=false
► Procedure
► Sensitivity
Question No: 47 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following typically does NOT apply to observers in survey research
studies?
► They observe predetermined activities.
► They are participant observers.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381582.cw/index.html
MCQ # 09
► They obtain information by watching rather than asking.
► They must be careful not to influence the activities they observe.
Question No: 48 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT a longitudinal study?
► Panel study
► Trend study
► Cohort study
► Census study
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381582.cw/index.html
MCQ # 12
Question No: 49 ( Marks: 3 )
Do you think that case studies are empirical? Explain.
Question No: 50 ( Marks: 3 )
How would you differentiate between History Effect and Mechanical Loss in
Experimental research?
Question No: 51 ( Marks: 5 )
Write a note on any three varieties of non reactive observations.
| ExamDate: |
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Question No: 52 ( Marks: 5 )
In research process, once you collect the data, how would you perform the scoring index
activity? Explain it with the help of example.
Question No: 53 ( Marks: 5 )
You want to explore females' cosmetic preferences. How would you prepare focus group
study for this topic?
FINALTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2010
Afaaq_tariq@yahoo.com
STA630- Research Methods (Session - 3)
Time: 90 min
Marks: 69
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Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The part of the action research spiral that differentiates this research methodology from
other kinds of research is;
► Looking at multiple sources of data.
► Taking action based on results.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381555.cw/index.html
| MCQ # | 6 |
► Thinking about or analyzing data in more than one way.
► The kinds of data that are collected.
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
If a researcher was studying the use of various instructional approaches to the "multiple
intelligences" of his students, he is likely to be conducting which of the following type of
research?
► Basic
► Evaluation
► Applied
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9865/2525631.cw/index.html#top
ofquiz1
MCQ # 1
► Grounded theory
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following functions is performed by theoretical framework?
► Elaborates the relationship among the variables.
► Explains the logic underlying these relationships.
► Describes the nature, and direction of the relationships.
► All of the given options.
Specifically a theoretical framework:
All
Elaborates the relationship among the variables
Explains the logic underlying these relationships
Describes the nature, and direction of the relationships
Page # 30
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Panel and cohort designs differ in that:
► Cohort studies involve quantitative research, whereas panel studies are
qualitative.
► A panel study does not need rules to handle new entrants to households.
► Only a cohort study will suffer from sample attrition.
► A panel study can distinguish between age effects and cohort effects, but a
cohort design cannot.
Handouts page # 10
ii. The panel study is a powerful type of longitudinal research. In panel study, the
researcher observes exactly the same people, group, or organization across time periods.
It is a difficult to carry out such study. Tracking people over time is often difficult
because some people die or cannot be located. Nevertheless, the results of a welldesigned panel study are very valuable.
iii. A cohort analysis is similar to the panel study, but rather than observing the exact
same people, a category of people who share a similar life experience in a specified time
period is studied. The focus is on the cohort, or category, not on specific individuals.
Commonly used cohorts include all people born in the same year (called birth cohorts),
all people hired at the same time, all people retire on one or two year time frame, and all
people who graduate in a given year. Unlike panel studies, researchers do not have to
locate the exact same people for cohort studies. The only need to identify those who
experienced a common life event.
And
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199202959/01student/cqs/ch02/?view=za
MCQ # 9
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following would LEAST likely be a data source for an action research study
of "teachers' questioning techniques in social studies classes"?
► Classroom observation
► Student questionnaires
► Videotaping of classes
► Students' standardized test scores
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381508.cw/index.html
| MCQ # |
9
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following represents excellent advice for conducting an interview?
► Listen more and talk less
► Don't interrupt
► Don't be judgmental about the interviewee's beliefs or views
► All of the given options
[PPT]
Qualitative Research Methods
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Why should a business researcher record and transcribe interviews?
► It overcomes all possible ethical considerations.
► The response of participants can be more readily shared with senior management.
► It allows a more thorough examination of what the interviewee has said.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch18/
| MCQ # |
7
► It allows the researcher to demonstrate his/her technical proficiency.
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The Pearson product moment correlation is used to demonstrate the relationship between;
► Two continuous variables
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381655.cw/index.html
MCQ # 11
► Two rank-ordered variables
► Variables that are expected to be curvilinearly related
► Dichotomous variables
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The statistic used to determine the relationship between two variables is:
► Analysis of covariance
► Chi square
► Standard deviation
► Pearson "r"
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381743.cw/index.htmlQuesti
onNo:11
MCQ # 17
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) http://vustudents.ning.com - Please choose one
Researchers organize data into all of the following, EXCEPT:
► Field
► Table
Page # 99
Researchers organize data into fields, records, and files.
► Record
► File
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT a necessary step in conducting experimental research?
► Manipulation of an independent variable
► Selection of measuring instruments
► Creating a hypothesis stating a causal relationship between variables
► Dividing the sample into subgroups to control for extraneous variables
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381867.cw/index.html
MCQ # 02
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Testing most likely, negatively affect internal validity when:
► The information tested is attitudinal in nature
► The time between pre- and posttest is short
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381876.cw/index.html
| MCQ # |
2
► The instrument is unreliable
► The participants are very low scorers
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following questions can be answered using content analysis?
► How do managers behave in the face of employment insecurity?
► How do the media report corporate re-branding exercises?
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch12/
MCQ # 01
► What effect does organizational size have on marketing strategy?
► What are the most popular leisure activities amongst the over-50s?
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which one is not the part of non reactive research?
► Physical traces
► Archives
► Observations
► Interviews
PAGE # 124
Varieties of Non-Reactive Observations
Physical Traces:
Archives:
Observations:
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
On which component of his field notes did Mr. Majid focused when he expressed in his
notes his thoughts and ideas about what he observed?
► Description
► Reflection
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1489/381392.cw/index.html
MCQ # 01
► Protocol
► Formal data
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) http://vustudents.ning.com - Please choose one
Which of the following is linked with an abstract model of underlying relations or causal
mechanism?
► Historical comparative
research PAGE # 148
Synthesis links specific evidence with an abstract model of underlying relations or causal
mechanism.
► Social research
► Action research
► Experimental research
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Historians organize evidence usually in:
► Comparative form
► Narrative form
PAGE # 152
Historians organize evidence as they write works of history. They often write narrative
history.
► Logical form
► Critical form
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What is the difference between a focus group and a group interview?
► A focus group is used to analyse group interaction, whereas a group interview
is used as a straight forward data collection tool.
MCQ # 1
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch19/
► A focus group is used only for political research, whereas group interviews are
more widely used in the social sciences.
► A focus group is used at the planning stage of a research project, whereas a group
interview is part of the actual data collection.
► A focus group is used to discuss a wide range of issues, whereas a group
interview looks at one specific topic.
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In which component of the method section would you find a discussion of validity and
reliability?
► Participants
► Instruments
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1487/380850.cw/site_search_fram
e/index.html
► Design
► Procedures
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following sampling is least reliable but normally the cheapest and easiest to
conduct?
► Purposive Sampling
► Snowball Sampling
► Convenience Sampling
Convenience samples are least reliable but normally the cheapest and easiest to conduct
P # 90
► Quota Sampling
Question No: 22 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following sampling is most often used during the exploratory phase of a
research project and is perhaps the best way of getting some basic information quickly
and efficiently?
► Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling is most often used during the exploratory phase of a research
project and is perhaps the best way of getting some basic information quickly and
efficiently.
P # 90
► Quota Sampling
► Snowball Sampling
► Purposive Sampling
Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 ) http://vustudents.ning.com- Please choose one
Which of the following is a form of Non-random sampling?
► Snowball sampling
► Convenience sampling
► Quota sampling
► All of the given option
PAGE # 90
OR
Nonrandom Sampling Techniques
The other major type of sampling used in quantitative research is nonrandom sampling
(i.e., when you do not use one of the ransom sampling techniques). There are four main
types of nonrandom sampling:
The first type of nonrandom sampling is called convenience sampling
The second type of nonrandom sampling is called quota sampling
The third type of nonrandom sampling is called purposive sampling
The fourth type of nonrandom sampling is called snowball sampling
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/lectures/lec7.htm
OR
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonprobability_sampling
Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Sampling in qualitative research is similar to which type of sampling in quantitative
research?
► Simple random sampling
► Systematic sampling
► Quota sampling
► Purposive
sampling PAGE # 90
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following relates with an abstract model of underlying relations or causal
mechanism?
► Analysis
► Synthesis
Synthesis links specific evidence with an abstract model of underlying relations or causal
mechanism.
PAGE # 148
► Results
► Findings
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The easiest way to describe the numerical data of one variable is;
► Frequency distribution
The easiest way to describe the numerical data of one variable is with a frequency
distribution.
PAGE # 104
► Normal distribution
► Poisson distribution
► Probability distribution
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
All of the following are ways to show a table in percentages, EXCEPT;
► By margins
There are three ways to percentage a table: by row, by column, and for the total.
Page # 107
► By row
► By column
► For the total
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is True for survey research?
► Survey research is a subset of experimental research.
► Survey research is often used in experimental research.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381582.cw/index.html
MCQ # 2
► Survey research is never used in experimental research.
► Survey research is always used in experimental research.
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When an interviewer unintentionally and mistakenly checks the wrong response on a
checklist during an interview, this is an example of:
► Social desirability bias
► Interviewer error
A type of non-sampling error caused by mistakes made by the interviewer These may
include influencing the respondent in some way, asking questions in the wrong order, or
sing slightly different phrasing (or tone of voice) than other interviewers.
► Interviewer cheating
► Sponsorship bias
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When an interviewer asks a respondent: "Why do you shop at Liberty's department
store?” this is an example of a:
► Unstructured question
► Structured question
► Disguised question
► Social desirability question
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
All of the following are stages in the selection of a sample EXCEPT:
► Determine sample size
► Analyze data
Stages in the Selection of a Sample
Step 1: Define the target population
Step 2: Select The Sampling Frame
Step 3: Probability OR Non-probability?
Step 4: Plan Selection of sampling units
Step 5: Determine Sample Size
Step 6: Select Sampling units
Step 7: Conduct Fieldwork
► Conduct fieldwork
► Select a sampling frame
Question No: 32 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Codes are rules for data.
► Classifying
► Interpreting
► Recording
► All of the given options
Although codes are generally considered to be numerical symbols, they are more broadly
defined as the rules for interpreting, classifying, and recording data
PAGE # 99
Question No: 33 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When a competitor introduces a 25% price cut in order to blunt the effect of a test
marketing study, this is an example of a:
► Maturation
effect PAGE 120
Maturation Effect: Cause and effect relationship can also be contaminated by the effects
of the passage of time – another uncontrollable variable. Such contamination is called
Maturation effect.
► Testing effect
► History effect
► Cohort effect
Question No: 34 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
All of the following elements of Observation is/are included in Non Reactive research
EXCEPT:
► Count Behaviors
► Time Duration
► External Appearance
► Other Records
PAGE # 124
Observations:
• External Appearance: How people appear may indicate social factors. For example,
researcher watches students to see whether they are more likely to wear their college’s
colors and symbols after the college team won or lost.
• Count Behaviors: Counting how many people do something can be informative. For
example researcher may count the number of men and women who come to a full stop
and those who come to a rolling stop at a traffic stop sign. This suggests gender
difference in driving behavior.
• Time Duration: How long people take to do things may indicate their intention. For
example
a researcher may measure how long men and women pause in front of a particular
painting.
Time taken may indicate their interest in the painting.
Question No: 35 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following element is not included for behavioral observation?
► Space
► Direction
► Frequency
► Accretion
PAGE # 126
Question No: 36 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The study of documents used by writers is a method of .
► In-depth analysis
► Time series analysis
► Regression analysis
► None of the given options
Content analysis is also the study of documents through which the writers try to
communicate, though some of the documents (like population census) may simply
contain figures.
Page # 129
Question No: 37 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When a manufacturer studies his most successful retailer in depth in order to determine
some better ideas for displaying bicycles in its retail stores, this is an example of:
► An experiment
► A test market
► A case study
Case study: It is an in-depth analysis of a unit which could be an individual person, a
couple, a group, or an organization
PAGE # 38
► Causal research
Question No: 38 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The written set of guidelines that describes an outline of topics to be covered by a focus
group moderator is called a:
► Discussion
guide PAGE 155
OR
A detailed written outline of topics the moderator will cover during a focus group
discussion.
► Concept test
► Case study
► All of the given options
Question No: 39 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is a disadvantage of focus groups?
► Requires objective, sensitive, and effective moderators
► May not be useful for discussing sensitive topics
► High cost
► All of the given options
Disadvantages of Focus Groups
Require objective, sensitive, and effective moderators.
May have unique sampling problems.
May not be useful for discussing sensitive topics in face-to-face situations.
Cost a considerable amount of money, particularly when they are not
conducted by someone employed by the company desiring the focus group.
Higher cost
Question No: 40 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which section of a report gives a summary of the contents, including the purpose,
description of the participants, the results, and any conclusions being offered?
► Methodology
► Introduction
► Abstract
An abstract is a summary of a body of information. Sometimes, abstracts are in fact
called summaries—sometimes, executive summaries or executive abstracts. There are
different kinds of abstracts—your technical report uses two types: the descriptive abstract
and the informative abstract.
OR HANDOUTS PAGE 161
► Letter of transmittal
Question No: 41 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following characteristic of the scientific method is defined as the
confirmation or refutation of the observation through the scientific method by using
sensory experience?
► Empirical
► Verifiable
Verifiable
Observations made through scientific method are to be verified again by using the senses
to confirm or refute the previous findings
PAGE # 04
► Observable
► Cumulative
Question No: 42 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Basic research can also be called as
► Practical research
► Fundamental Research
Basic research (also called academic research or pure research or fundamental research).
PAGE # 08
► Action research
► Assessment research
Question No: 43 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statement is true about the peer review?
► Name of the article's author is not mentioned to avoid biases
► It should be accepted
► It should be published in a well known journal
► Name of the author should be mentioned for the further correspondence
Question No: 44 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
After making the inventory of the relevant variables the next step is to:
► Provide logic for the relationship
► Make inventory of the propositions
► Identify the relationships between the variables
In the discussions the relevant variables are identified, and relationships are postulated.
Once the variables are identified, the same focus group discussions help in the
formulation of questions, along with the response categories, for the measurement of
variables.
PAGE # 156
► Deduce hypothesis
Question No: 45 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Theoretical framework helps to:
► Deduce the hypothesis
► Reject the hypothesis
► Test the hypothesis
From the theoretical framework, then, testable hypotheses can be developed to examine
whether theory formulated is valid or not. The hypothesized relationships can thereafter
be tested through appropriate statistical analysis.
PAGE # 30
► Accept the hypothesis
Question No: 46 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT a method of narrowing a topic?
► Literature review
► Specifying the context
► Talk to the experts
► Pilot testing
Techniques for Narrowing a Topic into a Research Question
1. Examine the literature.
2. Talk over ideas with others.
3. Apply to a specific context.
4. Define the aim or desired outcome of the study.
PAGE # 33
Question No: 47 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The working definition of the variables is called:
► Theoretical definition
► Dictionary definition
► Operational definition
Operational definition is also called a working definition stated in terms of specific
testing or measurement criteria.
PAGE # 18
► Fundamental definition
Question No: 48 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following characteristic is reflected by an interval scale?
► The distance between each participant's individual scores.
► Arithematic operations can be performed after data collection
► Classify the data into exclusive categories
► All of the given options
http://books.google.com/books?
id=eNsVUGTMcDoC&pg=PA138&dq=characteristic+is+reflected+by+an+interval+scal
e&hl=en&ei=pD5mTJH9MojRcfiPva0P&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&
ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=characteristic%20is%20reflected%20by%20an
%20interval%20scale&f=false
Question No: 49 ( Marks: 3 )
What is the logic of field research? How does a field researcher work?
Question No: 50 ( Marks: 3 )
Historical-Comparative research focuses on some factors, list down those factors?
Question No: 51 ( Marks: 5 )
Briefly describe the type of observation you would use, the field notes you would
develop, and some general principles you would follow to ensure successful data
collection.
Question No: 52 ( Marks: 5 )
What are the functions of a recorder? http://vustudents.ning.com
Question No: 53 ( Marks: 5 )
Briefly discuss the importance of Data Transformation in Research with the help of
example?
FINALTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2009
AFAAQ_TARIQ@YAHOO.COM
STA630- Research Methods (Session - 1)
Marks: 80
Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT an assumption of action research?
Action researchers have basic research skills to collect and analyze data.
All professionals need and want feedback on their performance.
Results enable the researchers to evaluate the performance of others.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381508.cw/index.html
MCQ # 06
Teachers are capable of assuming responsibility for their own professional growth.
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements it TRUE for operational definition?
It is one that bears no relation to the underlying concept.
It is an abstract, theoretical definition of a concept
A definition of a concept in terms of specific and empirical measures
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199202959/01student/cqs/ch06/
MCQ # 01
HANDOUTS PAGE # 18 & 50
It is one that refers to opera singers and their work.
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements best defines hypothesis?
A quantitative study
A tentative prediction of the results of the research
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MCQ @ 24
A qualitative research design
The operational definition of the study
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When the research starts from the effects and tracing the reasons back in time, what does
it called?
Case study
It is more like a clinical analysis in retrospect; starting from the effect and tracing the
reasons back in time. The researcher takes the history of the situation and makes use of
any other relevant information about the case to identify the factors leading to the present
situation
Page # 38
Experiment
Observation studies
Historical comparitive research
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The extent to which a test provides scores that are meaningful, appropriate, or useful is
referred to as;
Reliability
Accuracy
Internal validity
Validity
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MCQ # 18
HANDOUTS PAGE # 55
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Mr. Hasan s son has applied to a high school in Florida, but the application was denied
solely on his low score on the Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS). His son wants to attend
this school and contends his current grades and other standardized test scores speak well
to both his past work and future academic capability. Which of the following
characteristics of the ITBS is being questioned by this student?
Construct validity
Content validity
Predictive validity
Predictive validity:
Criterion validity whereby an indicator predicts future events that are logically related to
a construct is called a predictive validity.
PAGE # 56
Concurrent validity
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Internal consistency estimates of reliability such as the KR-20 or Cronbach's alpha are
used more frequently than other estimates such as test-retest or parallel forms because
internal consistency estimates;
Are easily calculated
Require only one administration of a test
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MCQ # 05
Are more accurate than all other types of estimates
Are usually higher
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following functions is performed by the Odinal scale?
Categorize
Distance
Order
Ordinal Scale
Ordinal scales include the characteristics of the nominal scale plus an indicator of order.
PAGE # 53
Unique origin
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is measured by the Interval scale?
Order of the object
Magnitude of the object
Categorize the object
All of the given options
On interval measurement scales, one unit on the scale represents the same magnitude on
the trait or characteristic being measured across the whole range of the scale.
OR HANDOUTS PAGE # 53
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Following are the properties of nominal scale, except;
Least powerful
Suggest no order
Provide categorical information
Provide magnitude of object
Nominal Scale
A nominal scale is the one in which the numbers or letters assigned to objects serve as
labels for identification or classification. This measurement scale is the simplest type.
With nominal data, we are collecting information on a variable that naturally or by design
can be grouped into two or more categories that are mutually exclusive, and collectively
exhaustive.
Nominal scales are the least powerful of the four scales. They suggest no order or
distance relationship and have no arithmetic origin. Nevertheless, if no other scale can be
used, one can almost always one set of properties into a set of equivalent classes.
PAGE # 53
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What is the difference between interval/ratio and ordinal variables?
Ordinal data can be rank ordered, but interval/ratio data cannot.
The distance between categories is equal across the range of interval/ration data.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199202959/01student/cqs/ch14/
MCQ # 01
Interval/ratio variables contain only two categories.
Ordinal variables have a fixed zero point, whereas interval/ratio variables do not.
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A study design in which the researcher might create to establish cause-and-effect
relationship is called Experimental Design.
An artificial setting, control some variables and manipulates the independent variable
A natural setting, control some variables and manipulates the dependent variables
An artificial setting, control some variables and manipulates the dependent variable
All of the given options
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following would LEAST likely be a data source for an action research study
of "teachers' questioning techniques in social studies classes"?
Student questionnaires
Videotaping of classes
Students' standardized test scores
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MCQ # 09
Classroom observation
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Teachers are advised to predict the results of student attitudinal questionnaires, because;
It will help them decide if students answered truthfully.
It gives them a point of comparison against which to judge actual responses.
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MCQ # 10
It will allow them to apply statistical procedures in analyzing results.
It helps them familiarize themselves with the questionnaires.
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is an example of a question about normative standards and
values?
How many workers are employed at this plant?
What is your attitude towards the management at this plant?
Do you always cast your vote in trade union elections?
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch10/
MCQ # 03
Are you aware of the main features of the European Union Directive for informing and
consulting employees?
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Questions that include negatives should be avoided because:
The respondent may miss out the negative word.
The respondent may be unsure how to answer if the question includes a double negative.
The respondent may be led by the question.
All of the given options.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/
OR
When using a Likert scale it can be difficult to avoid asking a question with a negative,
however the researcher should attempt to avoid them if possible.
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Random assignment to treatment groups is characteristic of which kind of research?
Causal-comparative
Correlational
Experimental
PAGE # 114
OR
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MCQ # 05
Descriptive
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is likely to happen if clear instructions are not given as to how the
respondent should answer the question?
Respondents may delete inappropriate answers rather than select appropriate ones.
Respondents may choose only one answer when they need to choose as many as apply.
Respondents may complete questions that are not relevant to them.
All of the given options
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch09/
MCQ # 07
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT an example of a problem with using social survey
research to investigate behaviour?
Respondents tend to answer by giving the most socially desirable answer.
Respondents may inadvertently omit key terms in the question.
Respondents may not give an honest reply to what they see as a threatening question.
Respondents may be unwilling to reveal information as they believe they are likely to be
identified.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch11/
MCQ # 01
OR
An advantage of social survey research is that the researcher can ensure that the
anonymity of the respondent is maintained by administering the same questions to each
individual.
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What is the main purpose of pilot testing?
To accumulate responses
To identify respondent
To identify potential problems
Pilot testing is to identify potential problems with the methods, logistics, and the
questionnaire.
PAGE # 80
To evaluate the research
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following sampling strategies was used when the three students with the
highest GPAs were selected?
Extreme case
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MCQ # 02
Snowball
Maximum variation
Normal case.
Question No: 22 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following best describes qualitative data analysis?
It begins after all the data has been collected.
It is an ongoing, cyclic process integrated into all phases of research.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9871/2527149.cw/content/index.
html
MCQ # 05
It is an awkward, haphazard process.
It builds from abstraction to specific, concrete examples
Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following represents the most general conceptualization in qualitative data
analysis?
Word
Topic
Category
Pattern
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MCQ # 01
Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The control procedure that allows the researcher to determine the effect of the
independent variable and the control variable on the dependent variable both separately
and in combination is;
Analysis of covariance
Matching
Forming subgroups to represent all levels of the control variable
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381743.cw/index.htmlQuesti
onNo:11
MCQ # 08
Randomization
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following could NOT be a cause of variation in high school achievement?
Reading ability
Parental involvement
Teacher expectations
College attendance
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381743.cw/index.htmlQuesti
onNo:11
MCQ # 11
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In experimental research, what does a researcher manipulate?
At least one dependent variable
All variables
At least one independent variable
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MCQ # 01
OR
http://books.google.com.pk/books?
id=j09b2rTVRsAC&pg=PA20&lpg#v=onepage&q&f=false
At least one independent variable and one dependent variable
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In an experimental study, "the effects of inclusion on academic self-concept of children
with special needs", the researcher must control which of the following?
The selection of subjects but not their assignment to a treatment group
The selection and assignment of subjects
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MCQ # 04
The assignment of subjects to a treatment group but not their selection
Neither the selection nor assignment of subjects
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Ecological validity refers to:
The participants to whom results generalize
The instruments used to measure the independent and dependent variables
The internal validity of a study
The context to which results generalize
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MCQ # 01
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Many beginner researchers believe that research involves testing, treating, and testing
again . This is an example of:
Comparison group research
Quasi-experimental research
True experimental research
Pre-experimental research
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MCQ # 15
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Single-subject research is LEAST concerned with:
Clinical significance
Internal validity
Validity of measuring instruments
External validity
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MCQ # 18
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
On which component of his field notes did Mr. Majid focused when he expressed in his
notes his thoughts and ideas about what he observed?
Description
Reflection
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1487/380850.cw/site_search_fram
e/index.html
Protocol
Formal data
Question No: 32 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In which section is the researcher allowed greater flexibility to express opinions, discuss
implications for educational practice, and suggest additional research?
Review of the literature
Significance of the study
Results
Discussion
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MCQ # 07
Question No: 33 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Determining the sample interval (represented by K), randomly selecting a number
between 1 to K, and including each K element in your sample are the steps for which
form of sampling?
Simple Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling
Simple or stratified in nature
Systematic in the “picking-up” of element. E.g. every 5th. visitor, every 10th. House,
every 15th. minute
Steps:
* Number the population (1,…,N)
* Decide on the sample size, n
* Decide on the interval size, k = N/n
* Select an integer between 1 and k
* Take case for every kth.
unit Cluster sampling
Question No: 34 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A focus group session is ideally for;
1 hour
1 and half hour
Duration, a focus group session typically lasts up to an hour and a half.
PAGE # 155
2 hours
More than 2 hours
Question No: 35 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In an experimental research study, the primary goal is to isolate and identify the effect
produced by which of the following?
Dependent variable
Extraneous variable
Independent variable
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc9.htm
MCQ # 23
Confounding variable
Question No: 36 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the process of identifying and classifying each item and giving
labels to each category?
Accretion
Count Behaviors
Intensity
Coding
Coding
The process of identifying and classifying each item and giving labels to each category.
PAGE # 126
Question No: 37 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When do largest percentages form a pattern across cells?
If there is no relationship
If there is non linear relationship
If there is curvilinear relationship
Curvilinear relationship, the largest percentages form a pattern across cells.
PAGE # 107
If there is linear relationship
Question No: 38 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following elements is/are not included for structuring Observation in Non
reactive research?
Frequency
Intensity
Direction
Accretion
Observations can be structured
Frequency:
Direction:
Intensity:
Space:
PAGE # 126
Question No: 39 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A census taker often collects data through which of the following?
Standardized tests
Interviews
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc6.htm
MCQ # 20
Secondary data
Observations
Question No: 40 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What is the particular advantage of secondary analysis to business students?
It is less challenging intellectually
It guarantees positive results
It is less expensive and less time consuming than primary analysis
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch13/
MCQ # 02
It enables students to gain experience of the workplace
Question No: 41 ( Marks: 5 )
Defend the use of the term inductive to describe qualitative data analysis and
interpretation.
Question No: 42 ( Marks: 5 )
What are the main parts of a research report?
Question No: 43 ( Marks: 10 )
Many universities do not allow their students to conduct experimental research to fulfil
thesis or dissertation requirements. Provide a rationale for changing this practice,
acknowledging the limitations of experimental research, but also citing at least three
reasons that action research should be accepted.
Question No: 44 ( Marks: 10 )
A multination company ABC has launched a new tooth paste Cleanex in Pakistan.
After eight months the company wants to analyze the consumer satisfaction about their
tooth paste. For research purpose, develop questions for the following scenarios that can
be used in questionnaire.
See the consumer preference for tooth paste or tooth powder by using nominal scale.
i. See the consumer preference for Cleanex Tooth Paste by using ordinal scale.
ii. See the important characteristics of the Cleanex Tooth Paste by using interval scale so
that the company can modify its strengths and improve its weaknesses.
iii. Check the monthly consumption of the tooth paste by using the ratio scale.
Question No: 45 ( Marks: 10 )
What is the need of a trivariate table? How can we construct trivariate table and what
FINALTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2009
AFAAQ_TARIQ@YAHOO.COM
STA630- Research Methods
Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
An experiment has high if one has confidence that the experimental treatment has
been the source of change in the dependent variable.
Internal validity
http://www.blurtit.com/q346633.html
External validity
Internal and external validity
Internal and external reliability
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
is the arbitrary and subjective.
Probability sampling
Non- Probability sampling
The selection of units in non-probability sampling is quite arbitrary
PAGE # 90
Cluster sampling
All of the given options
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT included in the stages of interviewing?
Asking questions
Recording the responses
Probing
Coding the data
Stages of an Interview
Asking the Questions
Probing
Recording the Responses
Page # 83 & 84
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Critical decision areas in questionnaire construction are
Question content
Question wording
Response strategy
All of the given options
http://books.google.com.pk/books?
id=Cf1D0DvWXI8C&pg=PA336&lpg=PA336&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
is based on the concept of random sampling.
Non- probability sampling
Probability sampling
The simple random is the best known probability sample,
PAGE # 90
Random sampling
Multiple sampling
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A sampling design in which the elements in the population do NOT have a known or
predetermined chance of being selected as sample subject is:
Convenience sampling
Stratified sampling
Non-Probability sampling
http://www.slidefinder.net/s/sampling_sample_design_jn602_week/5349303
SLIDE # 09
OR
In non-probability sampling the probability of any particular element of the population
being chosen is unknown.
PAGE # 90
Probability sampling
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
is the population for which results are required.
Finite population
Infinite population
Target population
Page # 88
OR
http://www.ehes.info/manuals/EHES_manual/PartA/EHES_Manual_PartA_Chapter2.pdf
None of the given options
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following technique yields a simple random sample?
Choosing volunteers from an introductory psychology class to participate
Listing the individuals by ethnic group and choosing a proportion from within each
ethnic group at random
Numbering all the elements of a sampling frame and then using a random number table to
pick cases from the table
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc7.htm
MCQ # 02
Randomly selecting schools, and then sampling everyone within the school
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following designs permits a comparison of pretest scores to determine the
initial equivalence of groups on the pretest before the treatment variable is introduced
into the research setting.
(a) One-group pretest-posttest design
(b) Pretest-posttest control group design
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc9.htm
MCQ # 09
(c) Posttest-only design with nonequivalent groups
(d) Both b and c
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Where do you provide a step-by-step account of what the researcher and participants did
during the research study?
Introduction
Abstract
Procedure
Procedure: The procedure includes the step-by-step how of your experiment. The
procedure should include:
• A description of the experimental design and how participants were
assigned conditions.
• Identification of your independent variable(s) (IV), dependent variable(s)
(DV), and control variables. Give your variables clear, meaningful names so
that your readers are not confused.
• Important instructions to participants.
• A step-by-step listing in chronological order of what participants did
during the experiment.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/670/04/
Design
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following has high response rate?
Mail interviewing
Telephone interviewing
Personal interviewing
http://books.google.com.pk/books?
id=FqF7n0zGJm0C&pg=PA380&lpg=PA380&#v=onepage&q&f=false
None of the given options
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Observation studies are also known as research.
Experimental
Field
OBSERVATION STUDIES/FIELD RESEARCH
PAGE 134
Quantitative
None of the given options
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Open-ended questions provide primarily data.
Unprocessed data
Qualitative data
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc6.htm
MCQ # 11
All of the given options
None of the given options
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which one of the following is NOT a major method of data collection:
Questionnaires
Interviews
Focus groups
2ND PARAGRAPH
All of the given options are methods of data collection
Data collection forms (questionnaires, checklist, interview guide, other forms)
PAGE # 35
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statement is incorrect?
In non participant observation the observer is just an observer.
In participant observation, the data accuracy is high.
Observation studies can be participant or non-participant. In participant observation the
researcher directly observes and participates in small scale social settings in the present
time.
PAGE # 134
Participant observation is also referred to as field research.
None of the given options
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
If the subjects are given a pretest it will not affect their performance in the posttest.
True
False
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In non- reactive research the subjects do not have knowledge that they are being studied.
True
In non-reactive research, those being studied are not aware that they are part of a research
project.
Page # 124
False
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In experimental group the subjects do not under go any treatment; however in control
group the subjects are given the treatment.
True
False
Page # 114
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When multiple questions are asked in one question, it leads to ambiguous answers
provided by the respondents.
True
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_choice
OR
Page # 78
Avoid Double-Barreled Questions
Make each question about one and only one. A double barreled question consists of two
or more questions joined together. It makes the respondent’s answer ambiguous. For
example, if asked, “Does this company have pension and health insurance benefits?” a
respondent at the company with health insurance benefits only might answer either yes or
no. The response has an ambiguous meaning and the researcher cannot be certain of the
respondent’s intentions. When multiple questions are asked in one question, thee results
may be exceedingly difficult to interpret.
False
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
An advantage of communication analysis is that it provides access to the inaccessible
subjects.
True
False
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 )
Pretest is the phase when the variable is measured prior to the introduction of
treatment.
Question No: 22 ( Marks: 1 )
If the percentages are calculated column wise in a table, then we will make comparison
between the variables in a_frequency_.
Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 )
In order to make two identical groups for experiment, the procedures to be undertaken are
randomization and matching.
Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 )
The main advantage of _mail _questionnaire is that a wide geographical area can be
covered in the survey.
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 )
A type of bias in questions occurs when they are phrased in an emotionally charged
manner, they are described as Loaded questions.
Page No.78
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 5 )
Make one hypothesis for each of the following types of hypotheses. (1 mark each)
i. If-then hypothesis
ii. Directional hypothesis
iii. Non directional hypothesis
iv. Null hypothesis
v. Alternative hypothesis
Answer:
i- If-then hypothesis:
If there is increase in cost there is decrease in profit.
ii. Directional hypothesis:
Increase in absentieesm causes a decrease in productivity level of employees.
iii. Non directional hypothesis:
Productivity level of employees is associated with rate of absenteeism.
iv. Null hypothesis:
There is no association between level of productivity and absenteeism.
v. Alternative hypothesis :
There is a relationship between level of job commitment of officers and their level
of efficiency.
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 5 )
Which is the most powerful scale among Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio scale, and
why?
Answer:
The highest level of measurement is a ratio scale. This has the properties of an interval
scale together with a fixed origin or zero point. Examples of variables which are ratio
scaled include weights, lengths and times. Ratio scales permit the researcher to compare
both differences in scores and the relative magnitude of scores. For instance the
difference between 5 and 10 minutes is the same as that between 10 and 15 minutes, and
10 minutes is twice as long as 5 minutes. Suffice it to say that virtually all statistical
operations can be performed on ratio scales.
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 5 )
A manager finds that off-the-job classroom training has a great impact on the
productivity of the employees in her department. However, she also observes that
employees over 60 years of age do not seem to derive much benefit and do not improve
with such training.
i. Identify the independent, dependent and moderating variables in the given scenario. (3)
Answer:
Inependent Variable: Off-the-job classroom training
Dependent Variable: Employees performance
Moedrating Variable: Employees age over 60 years
ii. How the moderating variable you identified in part (i) is affecting the independentdependent variable relationship in the scenario? (2)
Answer:
The moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent effect on the independent
variable and dependent variable relationship. That is the presence of a third variable
modifies the original relationship between the independent and the dependent variable
In the scenario above employees age over 60 years is acting as moderating variable
because it is the variable which affects the relationship of employees
performance (dependent variable) and off-the-job classrom training (independent
variable).which was positive in above case but age over 60 years reduces the positivity .
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 5 )
The accounts executive has established a new accounting system that utilizes maximum
computer technology. Before making further changes, he would like to get a feel for how
the accounting clerks react to the new system by acting as if he has no doubts about their
acceptability of the new system. He may then casually talk to the first five accounting
personnel that walk into his office, trying to gauge their reactions.
i. Describe the type of sampling the director should use in the
given scenario, probability or non probability? (1)
Answer:
Director should use probability sampling as probability sampling is the technique in
which some known elements of population participated in order to provide useful
descriptions.
| ii. | What type of sampling technique is being used and why? |
Answer:
Director should use probability sampling as probability sampling is the technique in
which some known elements of population participated in order to provide useful
descriptions.
iii. Give two characteristics of the type of sampling technique that
you selected in part (ii).
Answer:
Two characteristics of probability sampling:
| 1- | Random sampling lets a researcher statistically calculate the relationship |
| between the sample and the population – that is the size of sampling error | |
| 2- | All possible samples have a known and specified probability of being |
drawn.
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 5 )
You are doing research on “how to increase the efficiency level of labor”. For the
research purpose you have conducted an interview with the supervisor.
Give two structured and two unstructured questions that you may ask related to your
research. (2.5+2.5)
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 10 )
What is meant by validity and reliability? Describe the situations in which validity and
reliability problems occur.
for more contents visit
FINALTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2009
AFAAQ_TARIQ@YAHOO.COM
STA630- Research Methods (Session - 2)
Marks: 80
Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Who, among the following, wrote the book "Research Methods for Business"?
Zikmund, W.
Sekaran, U.
Research Methods For Business (A Skill Building Approach), 4E by Sekaran U.
Dessler, G.
Neuman, W.C.
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
On which of the following, Scientific knowledge mostly relies?
Identification of events
Logical understanding
Prior knowledge
All of the given options
PAGE # 04
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following refers to research supported by measurable evidence?
Opinion
Speculation
Empiricism
PAGE # 03
Rationalism
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
All of the following are true statements about action research EXCEPT;
Data are systematically analyzed.
Data are collected systematically.
Results are generalizable.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381508.cw/index.html
MCQ # 02
Results are used to improve practice.
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
If a researcher is studying the effect of using laptops in his classroom to ascertain their
merit and worth, he is likely conducting which of the following types of research?
Evaluation
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9865/2525631.cw/index.html
MCQ # 02
Experimental
Applied
Basic
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What is the problem with using strict definitions of important concepts?
They take the focus away from accurate measurement.
They prevent the researcher from assessing alternative ways of viewing a concept.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch16/
MCQ # 03
They prevent a consistent approach being achieved with business research.
They prevent research from being truly objective.
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A variable that is presumed to cause a change in another variable is known as:
Discontinuous variable
Dependent variable
Independent variable
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc2.htm
MCQ # 05
Intervening variable
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the difference between measures and indicators?
Measures are unambiguous quantities, whereas indicators are devised from
common sense understandings.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199202959/01student/cqs/ch06/
MCQ # 03
OR
Measures include things like demographics (of age, income and so on), which can be
counted. In fact, usually we think of measures as raw numbers. Often though, what we
want to research does not lend itself immediately to straightforward calculation on
numbers of things and how they vary but on slightly vaguer concepts. Like job
satisfaction, for example. In this case we need a number of attitude statements, which,
taken together, can be argued to represent the concept. These separate statements are
indicators and often represent our 'common sense' understanding of a concept. Later,
these can be coded to turn them into numbers for statistical analysis.
Indicators have a more direct relationship to the underlying concept than measures.
Measures are intuitively devised and then applied as if they were direct indicators of a
concept.
Indicators are unambiguous quantities, whereas measures are subjective and value laden.
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT the implication of Ordinal scale?
Characteristics of nominal scale
Rank the object
Does not provide magnitude of object
Provide rate
PAGE # 53
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Measurement reliability refers to which of the following?
Accuracy of the scores
Dependency of the scores
Consistency of the scores
Comprehensiveness of the scores
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements might assist response rates?
Please photocopy the questionnaire five times and pass on to your work colleagues.
Please make sure that the questionnaire is completed with a fountain pen.
Please read the attached journal article on the ontological foundations of positivism prior
to completing the questionnaire.
Please put the completed questionnaire in the enclosed stamped addressed envelope and
place in the mail out tray.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch09/
MCQ # 03
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Why it is important to avoid ambiguous terms while designing questions?
Respondents may not understand the question.
Respondents may operate with a different frame of reference.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch10/
MCQ # 05
Respondents may think the question is less important.
Respondents may have to ask for help when completing the questionnaire.
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is a double-barrelled question?
How satisfied you are with the performance appraisal system?
How satisfied you are with investment levels in new and existing software packages?
A double barreled question consists of two or more questions joined together. It makes
the respondent’s answer ambiguous. For example, if asked, “Does this company have
pension and health insurance benefits?” a respondent at the company with health
insurance benefits only might answer either yes or no.
PAGE # 78
How satisfied you are with the organisation's marketing strategy?
How satisfied you are with the levels of customer satisfaction?
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The small scale trial run of a particular item is called .
Test Run
Pilot test
Pilot testing also called pre-testing means small scale trial run of a particular component;
here we are referring to pilot testing of the questionnaire.
PAGE # 80
Post hoc test
T test
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following terms describes an interview protocol in which the topics and
questions to be addressed are identified, but the order in which the questions can be asked
is not stipulated?
Unstructured
Partially structured
Semistructured
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9870/2526923.cw/content/index
MCQ # 14
Structured
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The most important characteristic of the sample in survey research is that it is:
Representative of the target population.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381619.cw/index.html
MCQ # 04
OR
Usually, the population is too large for the researcher to attempt to survey all of its
members. A small, but carefully chosen sample can be used to represent the population.
The sample reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.
Convenient to access.
Easily observed in naturalistic settings.
Large enough to compare differences between subgroups.
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT something a researcher will have to consider while
thinking about their sample size?
Time and cost.
Non-response.
Length of questionnaire
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch07/
MCQ # 05
OR
In general bigger is better when considering sample size however all researchers need to
be aware of the limitations of their resources.
Heterogeneity of population.
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A correlation coefficient of -0.45 is generally considered to be;
No correlation
Low
Moderate
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MCQ # 06
High
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What is a researcher doing when he removes the variance explained by one variable in
order to understand the correlation between two other variables?
Statistical significance
Attenuation
Controlling for the variable
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381655.cw/index.html
MCQ # 10
Multiple regression research
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following best describes qualitative data analysis?
It begins after all the data has been collected.
It is an ongoing, cyclic process integrated into all phases of research.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9871/2527149.cw/content/index
MCQ # 05
It is an awkward, haphazard process.
It builds from abstraction to specific, concrete examples.
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The statistic used to determine the relationship between two variables is:
Analysis of covariance
Chi square
Standard deviation
Pearson "r"
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381743.cw/index.htmlQuesti
onNo:22
MCQ # 17
Question No: 22 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following describes the nature of qualitative data interpretation?
Reflection
Integrative
Explanatory
All of the given options
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Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In frequency tables total of columns and rows are called:
Body of table
Cell of table
Area of table
Marginals
Include the totals of the columns and rows. These are called marginals They equal the
nivariate frequency distribution for the variable.
Page #107
Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A researcher studies three groups of students who vary in level of self-confidence. She
finds that students with higher self-confidence are more popular among their peers. The
most plausible conclusion is that
We do not know what causes self-confidence or popularity.
Self-confidence causes popularity.
Popularity causes self-confidence.
Self-confidence and popularity are related.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381743.cw/index.ht
MCQ # 07
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Educational policy makers often conclude that an intervention didn't work. Often,
however, the intervention was not implemented as intended. The validity of
the policymakers' conclusion is threatened by
Lack of specificity of variables
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9869/2526465.cw/index.html
MCQ # 05
Selection-treatment interaction
Treatment diffusion
Faulty data analysis procedures
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Many beginner researchers believe that research involves testing, treating, and testing
again is an example of:
Comparison group research
Quasi-experimental research
True experimental research
Pre-experimental research
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381886.cw/index.html
MCQ #02
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following questions can be answered using content analysis?
How do managers behave in the face of employment insecurity?
How do the media report corporate re-branding exercises?
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch12/
MCQ # 01
What effect does organizational size have on marketing strategy?
What are the most popular leisure activities amongst the over-50s?
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Case study is empirical because;
It investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context.
It is retrospective study in which the researcher follows the research process from effect
to its cause.
It is a study back in time.
All of the given options
It investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context. It is retrospective
study n which the researcher follows the research process from effect to its cause. It is a
study back in time
PAGE # 158
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which component of a research report contains information about the topic studied,
iterature review, hypotheses, participants, instruments, procedures, results, and
discussion?
Preliminary pages
Main body
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9872/2527359.cw/index.html
MCQ03
Method
Discussion
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which one of the following Test helps in the proper sequence of the questions as
wording, translation, coding and structuring?
Test Run
Pre Test
Pre-testing may help in putting questions in proper sequence, using acceptable wording,
doing appropriate translation, question spacing, structuring of answers, coding system,
and needing instructions for interviewers (probing).
PAGE # 81
Post Hoc Test
T- Test
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following sampling is least reliable but normally the cheapest and easiest to
conduct?
Purposive Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Convenience samples are least reliable but normally the cheapest and easiest to conduct.
PAGE # 90
Quota Sampling
Question No: 32 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is a form of Non-random sampling?
Snowball sampling
Convenience sampling
Quota sampling
All of the given option
PAGE # 90
OR
Nonrandom Sampling Techniques
The other major type of sampling used in quantitative research is nonrandom sampling
(i.e., when you do not use one of the ransom sampling techniques). There are four main
types of nonrandom sampling:
The first type of nonrandom sampling is called convenience sampling
The second type of nonrandom sampling is called quota sampling
The third type of nonrandom sampling is called purposive sampling
The fourth type of nonrandom sampling is called snowball sampling
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/lectures/lec7.htm
OR
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonprobability_sampling
Question No: 33 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following has greatly facilitated the researcher to conduct tabulation and
statistical analysis?
SPSS
MINITAB
SYSTAT
All of the given options
The proliferation of computer technology in business and universities has greatly
facilitated tabulation and statistical analysis. Commercial packages eliminate the need to
write a new program every time you want to tabulate and analyze data with a computer.
SAS, Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), SYSTAT, Epi. Info. And
MINITAB is commonly used statistical packages.
Page # 104
Question No: 34 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What is the place of quotations in referencing?
Quotations should be given at the end.
Quotations should be given exactly as they appear in the source.
http://www.latrobe.edu.au/linguistics/resources_hons/Brochure/Para10.pdf
Quotations should be given in left margins only.
Quotations should not be given at all.
Question No: 35 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following terms refers to a statistical method that can be used to statistically
equate groups on a pretest or some other variable?
Experimental control
Differential influence
Matching
Analysis of covariance
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc9.htm
MCQ # 07
Question No: 36 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following could be used for randomly assigning participants to groups in an
experimental study?
Split-half
Even versus Odd numbers
Use a list of random numbers or a computer randomization program
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc9.htm
MCQ#15
Let the researcher decide which group will be the best
Question No: 37 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The design in which one group of research participants is administered a treatment and is
then compared, on the dependent variable, with another group of research participants
who did not receive the experimental treatment is known as:
One-group posttest-only design
One-group pretest-posttest design
Posttest-only design with non-equivalent groups
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc9.htm
MCQ # 26
Time series design
Question No: 38 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is referred to as the influence of a single independent variable?
Interaction effect
Reactive effect
Main effect
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc9.htm
MCQ # 27
Proactive effect
Question No: 39 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following types of analysis can be done using secondary analysis?
The analysis of specific subgroups
Longitudinal analysis
Cross-cultural analysis
All of the given options
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch13/
MCQ # 04
Question No: 40 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is/are advantage(s) of the self-completed questionnaire?
Inability to confirm who completed the questionnaire
Its unsuitability for some kinds of respondents
Inability to ask many questions that are not directly relevant to the respondent
Easy to justify the answer
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch09/
MCQ # 02 U WILL SE THE REMANING IS DISADVANTAGE of the self-completed
questionnaire
Question No: 41 ( Marks: 5 )
Defend the use of the term inductive to describe qualitative data analysis and
interpretation.
Question No: 42 ( Marks: 5 )
Briefly discuss the Solomon s Four Group Design in experimental research with the
help of example?
Question No: 43 ( Marks: 10 )
A multination company ABC has launched a new tooth paste Cleanex in Pakistan.
After eight months the company wants to analyze the consumer satisfaction about their
tooth paste. For research purpose, develop questions for the following scenarios that can
be used in questionnaire.
See the consumer preference for tooth paste or tooth powder by using nominal scale.
i. See the consumer preference for Cleanex Tooth Paste by using ordinal scale.
ii. See the important characteristics of the Cleanex Tooth Paste by using interval scale
so that the company can modify its strengths and improve its weaknesses.
iii. Check the monthly consumption of the tooth paste by using the ratio scale.
Question No: 44 ( Marks: 10 )
What are different types of probability sampling? Explain any two with detail.
Question No: 45 ( Marks: 10 )
What are different advantages and disadvantages of using secondary data?
FINALTERM EXAMINATION
Fall 2009
AFAAQ_TARIQ@YAHOO.COM
STA630- Research Methods
Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The part of the action research spiral that differentiates this research methodology from
other kinds of research is;
► Looking at multiple sources of data.
► Taking action based on results.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381555.cw/index.html
MCQ # 06
► Thinking about or analyzing data in more than one way.
► The kinds of data that are collected.
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Individuals who engage in action research are most concerned with:
► Supporting the way things are being done.
► Publishing results
► Proving a hypothesis
► Improvement
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381508.cw/index.html
MCQ # 20
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Research may differ along a series of dimensions. Which of the following may be applied
to this statement?
► The level of manipulation used to elicit data collection.
► The data-collection technique.
► The type of data collected.
► Type, technique and manipulation of data collection
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements best defines hypothesis?
► A quantitative study.
► A tentative prediction of the results of the research.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9865/2525651.cw/content/index
MCQ # 24
► A qualitative research design.
► The operational definition of the study.
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What is the first step in the research process?
► Problem definition
► Define broad problem area
The research process consists of a number of steps. The first step in any research is
selecting the topic, which could start from the broad area of interest
Page # 33
► Theoretical framework
► Preliminary data collection
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When there is a need of generating new ideas for hypotheses or to interpret the results of
some research, which one is the best research deign?
► Experiment
► Surveys
► Focus group discussion
Focus group discussions: It is a discussion of an issue by 6-12 persons with a moderator
for 1-2 hours. The issue can be a public concern, a product, a television program, a
political candidate, or a policy. Focus groups are useful in exploratory research or to
generate new ideas for hypotheses, and the interpenetration of results.
PAGE # 38
► Communication analysis
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is an example of deception in business research?
► The obtaining of company material without permission.
► The researcher wearing a disguise during an observation.
► The researcher representing their research as being about a different
topic. http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch05/
MCQ # 09
► The researcher failing to ask permission to interview someone.
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is least likely to occur as an ethical problem with electronic
research?
► Privacy could be invaded.
► People are not likely to be able to stop once they have begun participating.
► Debriefing could be avoided.
► Informed consent cannot be completely monitored.
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
All of the following are unethical issues, EXCEPT;
► Invoicing irregularities
► Avoiding legal liability
► Misrepresenting results
► Seeking permission for entry
Unethical activities
• Violating nondisclosure agreements.
• Breaking respondent confidentiality.
• Misrepresenting results.
• Deceiving people.
• Invoicing irregularities.
• Avoiding legal liability.
Page # 41
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the difference between measures and indicators?
► Measures are unambiguous quantities, whereas indicators are devised
from common sense understandings.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199202959/01student/cqs/ch06/
MCQ # 03
► Indicators have a more direct relationship to the underlying concept than
measures.
► Measures are intuitively devised and then applied as if they were direct indicators
of a concept.
► Indicators are unambiguous quantities, whereas measures are subjective and
value-laden.
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The extent to which a test provides scores that are meaningful, appropriate, or useful is
referred to as;
► Reliability
► Accuracy
► Internal validity
► Validity
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9866/2525945.cw/content/index
MCQ # 18
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following functions is performed by the Ordinal scale?
► Categorize
► Distance
► Order
Ordinal scales include the characteristics of the nominal scale plus an indicator of order.
PAGE # 53
► Unique origin
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
What is the difference between interval/ratio and ordinal variables?
► Ordinal data can be rank ordered, but interval/ratio data cannot.
► The distance between categories is equal across the range of interval/ration data.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199202959/01student/cqs/ch14/
MCQ # 01
► Interval/ratio variables contain only two categories.
► Ordinal variables have a fixed zero point, whereas interval/ratio variables do not.
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statement refers to cross-sectional design?
► A comparison of two or more variables over a long period of time
► The collection of data from more than one case at one moment in time
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch02/
MCQ # 05
► One that is devised when the researcher is in a bad mood
► A study of one particular section of society, e.g. the middle classes
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is TRUE for research plan?
► It should be detailed.
► It should be given to others for review and comments.
► It sets out the rationale for a research study.
► All of the given options
http://www.scribd.com/doc/22683412/Lecture-Notes-Research-Chaper-1-9
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following typically does NOT apply to observers in survey research
studies?
► They observe predetermined activities.
► They are participant observers.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381582.cw/index.html
MCQ # 09
► They obtain information by watching rather than asking
► They must be careful not to influence the activities they observe.
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is not an advantage of the self-completion questionnaire over the
structured interview?
► It is cheaper to administer.
► It is quicker to administer.
► It is easier to prompt the interviewee.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch09/
MCQ # 01
► It is easier to remove interviewer effects.
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Mr. X has coded his observations to hide the identity of each of the three participants in
his study. He is ensuring;
► protection from harm
► confidentiality
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1489/381347.cw/index.html
MCQ # 01
► informed consent
► anonymity
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The cover letter to a questionnaire study should contain all of the following, EXCEPT;
► A list of participants
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381582.cw/index.html
MCQ # 17
► A self-addressed, stamped envelope
► Purpose of the study
► Reasons to respond
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Teachers are advised to predict the results of student attitudinal questionnaires, because;
► It will help them decide if students answered truthfully.
► It gives them a point of comparison against which to judge actual responses.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381508.cw/index.html
MCQ # 10
► It will allow them to apply statistical procedures in analyzing results.
► It helps them familiarize themselves with the questionnaires.
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In conducting an action research study of "student's organizational skills during class in a
particular school", which of the following would NOT likely to provide useful data?
► Interviews with teachers
► Classroom observations
► Parent surveys
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381508.cw/index.html
MCQ # 16
► Teacher's journal entries
Question No: 22 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Why it is helpful to keep a research diary or log book while you are conducting your
project?
► To give you something to do in the early stages of your research when nothing is
happening.
► Because funding councils generally demand to see written evidence that you were
working every day during the period of the research.
► To keep a record of what you did and what happened throughout the
research process.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199202959/01student/cqs/ch03/
MCQ # 08
► It can be added to your dissertation to ensure that you reach the required word
limit.
Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is likely to happen if clear instructions are not given as to how the
respondent should answer the question?
► Respondents may delete inappropriate answers rather than select appropriate ones.
► Respondents may choose only one answer when they need to choose as many as
apply.
► Respondents may complete questions that are not relevant to them.
► All of the given options
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch09/
MCQ # 07
Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT a suitable topic for research using a diary?
► The amount of time managers spend on particular activities.
► The frequency with which managers undertake particular tasks.
► The locations in which a trade union representative has discussions with
individual members. Correct
► The volume of female managers in the retail industry.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch09/
MCQ # 09
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following represents excellent advice for conducting an interview?
► Listen more and talk less
► Don't interrupt
► Don't be judgmental about the interviewee's beliefs or views
► All of the given options
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is an example of a dilemma that might face feminist business
researchers conducting qualitative interviews with women?
► What role to adopt while interviewing male managers?
► How many female employees should be interviewed for a representative sample?
Correct
► How to overcome the issue of false consciousness?
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch18/
MCQ # 09
► What data to use while publishing findings?
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following sampling strategies was used when the three students with the
highest GPAs were selected?
► Extreme case
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1489/381384.cw/index.html
MCQ # 02
► Snowball
► Maximum variation
► Normal case
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which type of sampling strategy is exemplified by selecting two types of individuals:
those who are extremely happy and those who are extremely sad?
► Snowball
► Intensity
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9866/2525932.cw/index.html
MCQ # 03
► Homogeneous
► Purposive
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The logic of purposive sampling is:
► To use participants because the researcher has access to them.
► That a random sample can generalize to a population.
► That a few information-rich participants studied in depth yield many
insights about a topic.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1488/381150.cw/index.html
MCQ # 02
OR
PAGE # 90
► To include all participants, even though they are not all relevant to the problem.
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Using a sample of 30 participants, a researcher finds a correlation of 0.30 between two
variables. The relationship is not statistically significant. If the researcher were to triple
her sample size, which of the following is most likely?
► The correlation would be statistically significant.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381655.cw/index.html
MCQ # 09
► The correlation would be larger.
► The correlation would be smaller.
► Nothing is likely to change.
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following steps begins the analysis of qualitative data?
► Reading and memoing
► Describing the content and participants Correct
► Classifying and interpreting
► Data management
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381473.cw/index.html
MCQ # 06
Question No: 32 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following represents the most general conceptualization in qualitative data
analysis?
► Word
► Topic Correct
► Category
► Pattern
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381483.cw/index.html
MCQ # 01
Question No: 33 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following BEST differentiates data analysis from interpretation?
► Interpretation requires more conceptual and integrative thinking than
data analysis.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9871/2527149.cw/content/index
MCQ # 11
► Interpretation involves computerized analysis of data.
► Data analysis is explanatory and interpretation is conceptual. Correct
► Data analysis involves conceptualization but interpretation does not.
Question No: 34 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The statistic used to determine the relationship between two variables is:
► Analysis of covariance
► Chi square
► Standard deviation Correct
► Pearson "r"
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381743.cw/index.htmlQuesti
onNo:35
MCQ # 17
Question No: 35 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT a control procedure used in causal-comparative research?
► Matching
► Subgroups
► Chi square
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381743.cw/index.html
MCQ # 18
► Analysis of covariance
Question No: 36 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following best describes qualitative data coding?
► Adding all of the scores together and describing them statistically
► Identify data segments that contain general episodes
► Numerically representing the concepts identified by the participants Correct
► Dividing data in parts that represent single thoughts
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381473.cw/index.html
MCQ # 04
Question No: 37 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The bivariate tables derived from trivariate table are called;
► Sub table
► Bivariates
► Partials
A trivariate table has a bivariate table of the independent and dependent variable for each
category of the control variable. These new tables are called partials.
PAGE # 110
► Correlational tables Correct
Question No: 38 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Quasi-experimental research is used because:
► Random selection is not possible
► Neither random selection nor random assignment is possible
► Random assignment is not possible
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381820.cw/index.html
MVQ # 16
► There are no comparison groups available
Question No: 39 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A researcher believes that the effects of a treatment will be different for males and
females. Which one is the best method to test this possible interaction?
► Single-subject design
► Factorial design
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381820.cw/index.html
MCQ # 17
OR
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factorial_experiment
► Time-series design Correct
► Quasi-experimental design
Question No: 40 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The influence of the researcher's background, personal experiences, preferences, or
attitude on an interview or observation is technically defined as:
► Participant bias
► Observer bias
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1489/381347.cw/index.html
MCQ # 18
► Observer effect Correct
► Nonparticipant effect
Question No: 41 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
On which component of his field notes did Mr. Majid focused when he expressed in his
notes his thoughts and ideas about what he observed?
► Description Correct
► Reflection
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1489/381392.cw/index.html
MCQ # 01
► Protocol
► Formal data
Question No: 42 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is linked with an abstract model of underlying relations or causal
mechanism?
► Historical comparative research
PAGE # 148
Synthesis links specific evidence with an abstract model of underlying relations or causal
mechanism.
► Social research
► Action research
► Experimental research
Question No: 43 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In which section is the researcher allowed greater flexibility to express opinions, discuss
implications for educational practice, and suggest additional research?
► Review of the literature
► Significance of the study
► Results
► Discussion
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1492/382157.cw/index.html
MCA # 07
Question No: 44 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following can be referred as Haphazard Sampling?
► Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling (also called haphazard or accidental sampling)
PAGE # 90
OR
http://www.starmass.com/en/research_sampling_method.htm
► Purposive Sampling
► Snowball Sampling Correct
► Quota Sampling
Question No: 45 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
An important issue in index construction is to------------items.
► Reconstruct
► Codify
► Measure
► Weight
An important issue in index construction is whether to weight items.
PAGE # 103
Question No: 46 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following elements of Observation is/are included in Non Reactive
research?
► External Appearance
► Count Behaviors
► Time Duration
► All of the given options
Observations of Non-Reactive Observations
• External Appearance
• Count Behaviors
• Time Duration
PAGE # 124
Question No: 47 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Secondary /existing data may include which of the following?
► Official documents
► Personal documents
► Archived research data Correct
► All of the given options
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc6.htm
MCQ # 07
Question No: 48 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following major problem exist with non respondents in survey research?
► They tend to be alike in many ways.
► Data cannot be analyzed for only part of a sample.
► They cannot be found to determine if they are similar to respondents. Correct
► They may have different opinions than respondents.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381580.cw/index.html
MCQ # 05
Question No: 49 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following advantage differentiates personal interview from mail, internet
and telephonic survey?
► Cheaper
► Expensive
► Easier
► Inexpensive
Question No: 50 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which one of the following methods offers the lowest degree of geographic flexibility?
► Mail survey
Mail questionnaires can reach a geographically dispersed sample simultaneously and at a
relatively low cost because interviewers are not required.
PAGE # 70
► Telephone interview
► Door-to-door personal interview
► Internet survey
Question No: 51 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following survey research methods is the most expensive?
► Telephone interview
► Mail survey
► Door-to-door personal interview
As the cost of personal interviews continues to increase
PAGE # 69
► Mall intercept personal interview
Question No: 52 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When a respondent tells the interviewer that he reads "Best Selling English News Paper"
on a daily basis so that he can impress the interviewer, this is an example of:
► Administrative bias
► Interviewer bias
Interviewer Bias
Interviewer’s personal likings and dis-likings, the environment, and cultural biases can
affect the understanding of the responses, its recording, and its interpretation.
PAGE # 66
► Submission bias
► Response bias Correct
Question No: 53 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
All of the following are stages in the selection of a sample EXCEPT:
► Determine sample size
► Analyze data
► Conduct fieldwork
► Select a sampling frame
Question No: 54 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A stratified sample in which the number of sampling units drawn from each stratum is in
proportion to the population size of that stratum is called a:
► Balanced stratified sample Correct
► Proportional stratified sample
The number of sampling units drawn from each stratum is in proportion to the relative
population size of the stratum, the sample is proportionate stratified sampling.
Page # 94
► Cluster sampling
► Convenience sample
Question No: 55 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Assigning males the value of zero and females the value of one in a database to record
the gender of the respondents is an example of:
► Coding
Coding
Entering the answer to survey questions into a computer in abbreviated form. For
example, M for male, F for female. Coding in qualitative research uses the same
principle, on a larger scale.
http://www.audiencedialogue.net/gloss-data.html
Or
Page # 99
For example, a researchers codes males as 1 and females as 2. Each category of variable
and missing information needs a code. A codebook is a document (i.e. one or more
pages) describing the coding procedure and the location of data for variables in a format
that computers can use.
► Editing
► Verification
► Test tabulation
Question No: 56 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Arranging data into a table is called:
► Analysis
► Frequency
► Interpretation
► Tabulation
The classification or placing of data into tabular form is called as tabulation
http://www.tutorvista.com/math/tabulation-of-data-tutoring
Question No: 57 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A researcher interested in a data matrix that displays the frequency of some combination
of possible responses to multiple variables should construct a:
► Contingency table
A contingency table is formed by cross-tabulating the two or more variables. It is
contingent because the cases in each category of a variable get distributed into each
category of a second variable. The table distributes cases into categories of multiple
variables at the same time and shows how the cases, by the category of one variable, are
“contingent upon” the categories of the other variables
Page # 105
► Regression equation
► Marginal table
► None of the given options
Question No: 58 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When initial subjects are selected randomly and additional subjects are obtained from
recommendations of names from the initial subjects, this sampling technique is called:
► Judgment sample
► Snowball
Snowball sampling is a special nonprobability method used when the desired sample
characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate
respondents in these situations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects
to generate additional subjects. While this technique can dramatically lower search costs,
it comes at the expense of introducing bias because the technique itself reduces the
likelihood that the sample will represent a good cross section from the population.
http://www.statpac.com/surveys/sampling.htm
► Convenience sample
► Cluster sample Correct
Question No: 59 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When different interviewers are used in a pretest from those used in the posttest and this
produces different results in the study, this is an example of a:
► History effect
► Mortality effect
► Instrumentation effect
Instrumentation Effects: Instrumentation effects are yet another source of threat to
internal validity. These might arise because of a change in the measuring instrument
between pretest and posttest, and not because of the instrument’s differential impact at
the end. For example, in a weightloss experiment, the springs on the scale weaken during
the experiment, giving lower readings in the posttest.
A change in the wording of questions (may be done to avoid testing effects), change in
interviewers, or change in other procedures to measure the dependent variable can cause
instrumentation effect.
Performance of the subjects measured by the units of output in the pretest, but when
measuring the out put in posttest the researcher measures it by “the number of units
rejected, and the amount of resources expended to produce the units.
Page # 121
► Cohort effect
Question No: 60 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is a threat to the internal validity of experiment using a repeated
measures design?
► Instrumentation effect
Factors Affecting Internal Validity
1. History Effect:
2. Maturation Effect:
3. Testing Effects:
4. Instrumentation Effects: (Page # 121)
5. Selection Bias Effect:
6. Statistical Regression:
7. Mortality:
8. Mechanical Loss:
9. Experimenter Expectancy:
► Cohort effect
► Attrition effect
► All of the given options
Question No: 61 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Most threats to are taken care of by the experiment’s design, while most
threats to need to be taken care of by the designer of the experiment.
► Internal validity, external validity
http://www.coe.iup.edu/grbieger/Classes/LTCY698/Module 6/Validity.ppt#263,6
► External validity, internal validity
► Randomization, reliability
► Reliability, randomization
Question No: 62 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In which of the following, the beginning and end are not clear. The interview can be
picked up later?
► Survey Interview
► Field Interview
Field Interview
The beginning and end are not clear. The interview can be picked up later.
► Deception
► None of the given options
Question No: 63 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The written set of guidelines that describes an outline of topics to be covered by a focus
group moderator is called a:
► Discussion guide
The basic idea is to lay out a set of issues for the group to discuss. It is important to bear
in mind that the moderator will mostly be improvising comments and questions within
the framework set by the guidelines.
Page # 153
► Concept test
► Case study
► All of the given options
Question No: 64 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is a disadvantage of focus groups?
► Requires objective, sensitive, and effective moderators
► May not be useful for discussing sensitive topics
► High cost
► All of the given options
Disadvantages of Focus Groups
Require objective, sensitive, and effective moderators.
May have unique sampling problems
May not be useful for discussing sensitive topics in face-to-face situations
Cost a considerable amount of money, particularly when they are not conducted by
someone employed by the company desiring the focus group.
Higher cost
Question No: 65 ( Marks: 3 )
What do we write in executive summary of a research report?
Executive Summary of Research Report:
It is very important part of the report. And it is observed that mostly managers read
summary report normally and rest members read whole report.
Executive summary write in four elements:
1. First objective of the report is mentioned and then most important part and specific
reason of the project.
2. Main results are presented including purpose.
3. The conclusions of the report based on results.
4. The suggestions on the basis of conclusions that action will be taken
.
Question No: 66 ( Marks: 5 )
What is different Ethical dilemma of Field research?
Ans
Ethical Dilemmas of Field research
The dilemmas are made when the researchers are alone in fields and have very much
little time to make decision. The ethical dilemmas raises when a field researcher get
involve into lives of other people.
These dilemmas arise suddenly when some one interacting in the field with others.
Some of these dilemmas:
Confidentiality:
In field some learns a lot and some not very much, similarly some one has some
confidential data and don’t want to share with anyone which creates it.
Deception:
Deception may arise because of false role, name or identity, some agreed with some one
and some one not some time. So because of these things this occurs.
The powerful:
Field researchers are normally those who are without power in society e.g., street people,
the poor, and powerful people block their way and criticized them
Involvement with deviations:
Some researchers conduct research on deviants who engage in illegal behavior. This type
of things create dilemma due to involvement in illeal activities.
Last field reports:
At the end of research, the knowledge, a researcher gains and his final report or thesis can
make a dilemma between the right of privacy and the right to know. In last report if
researcher hides some fact or not give the true picture of research then it creates a
dilemma.
Question No: 67 ( Marks: 10 )
By using Likert scale, how would you score a positive and negative statement? Give one
example to explain your answer.
Ans:
Likert scale is bused on 5 responses therefore lets take an example and constructed
number of statements for each element with five responses.
➢ Strongly Agree
➢ Agree
➢ Undecided
➢ Disagree
➢ Strongly Disagree
These statements could be of both positive and negative.
For positive statements
We score from 5 to 1 i.e. strongly agree to strongly disagree
For negative statement
Score will be reversed i.e 1 to 5
1 for strongly agree
2 for agree
3 for undecided
4 for disagree
5 for strongly disagree
Question No: 68 ( Marks: 10 )
How observations can be structured in non-reactive research?
Ans
In non reactive research, the people or the things that are being studied are not aware of
that.
Non reactive research is structured as follow:
PHYSICAL TRACES:
• Erosion:
In erosion wear and tear has a greater use. For example, a researcher examines that
children like those toys which are worn out and children have more interest in them.
ARCHIVES:
• Running Records:
In these records many researches can be done.
For example, a record of thieves in jail record of daily marriages. Etc.
• Other Records:
Irregular records can give a lot
. For example, look into the number of reams of paper purchased by a college principal’s
office for the last 10 years and compare it with students’ enrollment.
OBSERVATIONS:
• Time Duration:
By this type of research, researcher can check the interest of people indifferent things.
Like time spending in seeing the signboards on the road.
• External Appearance:
It shows the behavior of people in social factor that how they want to look.
How people appear may indicate social factors. For example, a
researcher can examine that in university how much percentage of student’s wear casual
dressing and how much formal.
FINALTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2009
AFAAQ_TARIQ@YAHOO.COM
STA630- Research Methods (Session - 2)
SOLVED By Muhammad Afaaq
Marks: 80
Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the basis of the Scientific Method?
To test hypothesis in conditions that is conducive to its success.
To formulate a research problem and disprove the hypothesis
To formulate a research problem, test the hypothesis in carefully controlled conditions
that challenge the hypothesis.
http://www.uk.sagepub.com/breakwell/downloads/mcq/mcq_01/mcq_01.htm
Mcq # 01
To test hypothesis and if they are disproved, they should be abandoned completely.
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
An inductive logic is one that:
Involves testing as explicitly defined hypothesis
Does not allow for findings to feed back into the body of knowledge
Uses quantitative methods whenever possible
Allows theory to emerge out of the data
http://www.oup.com/uk/ orc/bin/9780199202959/01student/cqs/ch01/
MCQ # 03
OR
The usual application of inductive theory, however, is to allow theory to emerge from our
findings. We find an interesting question, we gather data on it and we 'theories' from our
findings. It may be that these 'theories' are, in reality, simply 'interesting insights' rather
than 'grand theories' but they can be valuable for all that.
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is not a concept?
Leadership
Total Quality Management
Human Resource Management
Intelligence Quotient (IQ).
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch06/
MCQ # 01
OR
Concepts are the building blocks of theory, each of which represents a label given to a
common element of the social world. IQ is a measure of the concept of intelligence; it is
not a concept in itself.
An independent variable is a factor that can be varied or manipulated in an experiment
http://www.everythingbio.com/glos/definition.php?word=independent+variable
Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the definition of an independent variable?
A variable that is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter
A response variable
The behavioral measure made by the experimenter
A dependent variable that is controlled by the experimenter
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The cause variable or the one that identifies forces or conditions that act on something
else is known as:
Moderating variable
Independent variable
The cause variable, or the one that identifies forces or conditions that act on something
else, is the independent variable.
PAGE # 19
Categorical variable
Dependent variable
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A measure is reliable if it provides consistent .
Hypothesis
Results
A measure is reliable if it provides consistent Results
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/A_measure_is_reliable_if_it_provides_consistent
Procedure
Sensitivity
Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements relates to concurrent validity?
The measure apparently reflects the content of the concept in question.
A criterion is employed on which cases are known to differ.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch06/
MCQ # 04
A future criterion is employed on which cases are known to differ.
A measure is gauged by comparing it to measures of the same concept developed through
other methods.
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Research may differ along a series of dimensions. Which of the following may be applied
to this statement?
The type of data collected.
The data-collection technique
The level of manipulation used to elicit data collection.
All of the given options
http://www.uk.sagepub.com/breakwell/downloads/mcq/mcq_01/mcq_01.htm
MCQ # 06
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Cross cultural studies are an example of:
Comparative design
Historical-comparative research is a collection of techniques and approaches. It is a
distinct type of research that puts historical time and /or cross-cultural variation at the
center of research – that is, which treats what is studied as part of the flow of history and
situated in cultural context.
PAGE # 142
OR
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199202959/01student/cqs/ch02/
Longitudinal design
Experimental design
Case study design
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
When constructing a questionnaire, there are few principles to which you should adhere.
Which of the following is NOT one of those principles?
Avoid using "leading" or "loaded" questions
Avoid double-barreled questions
Avoid ambiguity and confusion
Avoid arranging questions in a sequence
PAGE # 77, 78
Guidelines for Questionnaire Design
1. Questionnaire Relevancy
2. Questionnaire Accuracy
3. Avoid Ambiguity, Confusion, and Vagueness.
4. Avoid Double-Barreled Questions
5. Avoid Leading Questions
6. Avoid Loaded Questions
7. Avoid Burdensome Questions that may Tax the Respondent’s Memory
8. Arrange Questions in a Proper Sequence
9. Use Filter Question, if Needed
10. Layout of the questionnaire
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following statements is true about closed ended questions and open ended
questions?
A closed ended question means that the chances of unreliable post-coding is small,
whereas an open ended question means that there is a possibility of data processing error.
A closed ended question allows for the researchers terminology to be used, whereas an
open ended question allows the respondant to use terms they are familiar with.
A closed ended question allows for easy processing, whereas coding an open-ended
question can be very time consuming.
A closed ended question has many advantages over open ended question.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch10/
MCQ # 02
JUST 4 CONCEPT NOT EXACT MATCH
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is NOT an example of a problem with using social survey
research to investigate behaviour?
Respondents tend to answer by giving the most socially desirable answer.
Respondents may inadvertently omit key terms in the question.
Respondents may not give an honest reply to what they see as a threatening question.
Respondents may be unwilling to reveal information as they believe they are likely to be
identified.
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199284986/01student/cqs/ch11/
MCQ # 01
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following represents excellent advice for conducting an interview?
Listen more and talk less
Don't interrupt
Don't be judgmental about the interviewee's beliefs or views
All of the given options
[PPT]
Qualitative Research Methods
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Smaller sample sizes can be used in correlation research when;
The researcher expects no relationship between the variables.
There are only two variables to correlate.
The instruments used to measure the variables have low validity and reliability.
The instruments used to measure the variables have high validity and reliability.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381698.cw/index.html
MCQ # 02
Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following steps begins the analysis of qualitative data?
Reading and memoing
Describing the content and participants
Classifying and interpreting
Data management
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet airasian_edresearch_7/5/1490/381473.cw/index.html
MCQ # 06
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following could NOT be a cause of variation in high school achievement?
Reading ability
Parental involvement
Teacher expectations
College attendance
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381743.cw/index.htmlQuesti
onNo:11
MCQ # 11
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The statistic used to determine the relationship between two variables is:
Analysis of covariance
Chi square
Standard deviation
Pearson "r"
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381743.cw/index.htmlQuesti
onNo:22
MCQ # 17
OR
The correlation between two variables reflects the degree to which the variables are
related. The most common measure of correlation is the Pearson Product Moment
Correlation (called Pearson's correlation for short).
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A researcher studies three groups of students who vary in level of self-confidence. She
finds that students with higher self-confidence are more popular among their peers. The
most plausible conclusion is that:
We do not know what causes self-confidence or popularity.
Self-confidence causes popularity.
Popularity causes self-confidence.
Self-confidence and popularity are related.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381743.cw/index.html
MCQ # 07
Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is true about validity?
A study can be internally valid but not externally valid.
A study can be externally valid but not internally valid.
A study must be both internally and externally valid.
http://www.docstoc.com/docs/14330216/Bias-in-Clinical-Research
SLIDE # 03
The internal and external validity of studies are not related in any way.
Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Testing most likely, negatively affect internal validity when:
The information tested is attitudinal in nature
The time between pre- and posttest is short
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/5/1491/381818.cw/index.html
MCQ # 10
The instrument is unreliable
The participants are very low scorers
Question No: 21 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Ecological validity refers to:
The participants to whom results generalize
The instruments used to measure the independent and dependent variables
The internal validity of a study
The context to which results generalize
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9869/2526465.cw/index.html
MCQ # 01
Question No: 22 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which one is not the part of non reactive research?
Physical traces
Archives
Observations
Interviews
Varieties of Non-Reactive Observations
Physical Traces:
Archives:
Observations:
PAGE 124
Question No: 23 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which advice would you offer a novice researcher conducting his first observation?
Observe only one behavior at a time
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/38/9871/2526978.cw/index.html
MCQ # 08
Allow variables to emerge from the context
Record behaviors only after leaving the site
Develop a preconceived notion of what is going to help structure the observation
Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
How the Procedure for data processing and analysis can be evaluated in Pilot Testing?
Make dummy tables
Procedure for data processing and analysis can be evaluated:
Make dummy tables. See how can we tabulate the data and use the appropriate statistics
for purposes of interpretations
Page # 81
Work output of each member
Length of Questionnaire
Format Tools
Question No: 25 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the complete group of specific population elements relevant to
the research project?
Element
Target Population
Target population is the complete group of specific population elements relevant to the
research project.
Page # 88
OR
http://www.ehes.info/manuals/EHES_manual/PartA/EHES_Manual_PartA_Chapter2.pdf
Sampling Frame
Sampling Unit
Question No: 26 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the summary description of a given variable in a population?
Statistic
Observation Unit
Parameter
A parameter is the summary description of a given variable in a population.
Page # 89
Sampling Unit
Question No: 27 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is that element or set of elements considered for selection in some
stage of sampling?
Parameter
Sampling Unit
A sampling unit is that element or set of elements considered for selection in some stage
of sampling. Sampling may be done in single stage or in multiple stages.
Page # 89
Observation Unit
Statistic
Question No: 28 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
If you are going on the street and suddenly a TV reporter starts taking your interview
regarding any issue, which of the following sampling technique is used by the TV
reporter?
Purposive Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling (also called haphazard or accidental sampling)refers to sampling
by obtaining units or people who are most conveniently available. For example, it may be
convenient and economical to sample employees in companies in a nearby area, sample
from a pool of friends and neighbors. The person-on-the street interview conducted by
TV programs is another example. TV interviewers go on the street with camera and
microphone to talk to few people who are convenient to interview. The people walking
past a
TV studio in thee middle of the day do not represent everyone homemakers, people in the
rural areas). Likewise, TV interviewers select people who look “normal” to them and
avoid people who are unattractive, poor, very old, or inarticulate.
PAGE # 90
Quota Sampling
Question No: 29 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following sampling is most often used during the exploratory phase of are
search project and is perhaps the best way of getting some basic information quickly
and efficiently?
Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling is most often used during the exploratory phase of a research
project and is perhaps the best way of getting some basic information quickly and
efficiently. Often such sample is taken to test ideas or even to gain ideas about a subject
of interest.
Page #90
Quota Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Purposive Sampling
Question No: 30 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following sampling method is the best way to select a group of people for a
study if you are interested in making statements about the larger population?
Convenience sampling
Quota sampling
Purposive sampling
Random sampling
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc7.htm
MCQ# 27
Question No: 31 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In which of the following conditions, each part of the construct should be measured with
at least one indicator?
Unidimensionality
Scale
Weighing
Index Construction
Each part of the construct should be measured with at least one indicator. Of course, it is
better to measure the parts of a construct with multiple indicators.
Page # 102
Question No: 32 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following number of variables involved in Descriptive Statistics?
Bivariate
Multivariate
Univariate
All of the given options
Descriptive statistics describe numerical data. They can be categorized by the number of
variables involved: univariate, bivariate, or multivariate
Page # 105
Question No: 33 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
All of the following are types of personal communication, except;
Letters
Memos
Telephone conversations
Emails
Personal communication through letters, memos, telephone conversations,
Page # 167
Question No: 34 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following terms refers to a statistical method that can be used to statistically
equate groups on a pretest or some other variable?
Experimental control
Differential influence
Matching
Analysis of covariance
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc9.htm
MCQ # 07
Question No: 35 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In an experimental research study, the primary goal is to isolate and identify the effect
produced by which of the following?
Dependent variable
Extraneous variable
Independent variable
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc9.htm
MCQ # 23
Confounding variable
Question No: 36 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is referred to as the influence of a single independent variable?
Interaction effect
Reactive effect
Main effect
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc9.htm
MCQ # 27
Proactive effect
Question No: 37 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which of the following is the process of marking segments of data with symbols,
descriptive words or category?
Concurring
Coding
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc17.htm
MCQ # 07
Coloring
Segmenting
Question No: 38 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
A census taker often collects data through which of the following?
Research Methods –STA630 VU
©CopyrightVirtualUniversityofPakistan 1
Standardized tests Interviews
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/mcq/mc6.htm MCQ # 20
Secondary data Observations
Question No: 39 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Which one is NOT an advantage of personal interviewing? Interviewer
influence
Disadvantages of Personal Interviewing:
5. Interviewer Influence
PAGE # 66
Probing complex questions Visual aids
High completion rate
Question No: 40 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
All of the following are the characteristics of scientific methods of research, EXCEPT;
Cumulative Deterministic
Unethical
Important Characteristics of Scientific Method
3. Cumulative
4. Deterministic
7. Rationalism
PAGE # 3, 4, 5
INTRODUCTION, DEFINITION & VALUE OF RESEARCH
Whether we are aware of it or not, we are surrounded by research. Educators, administrators,
government officials, business leaders, human service providers, health care professionals, regularly use
social research findings in their jobs. Social research can be used to raise children, reduce crime,
improve public health, sell products, improve workers’ efficiency, or just understand one’s life.
Assume for the moment that you are the Manager of a restaurant. You are experiencing a significant
turn over in your waiter/waitress pool, and long-time customers have been commenting that the friendly
atmosphere that has historically drawn them to your door is changing. What will you do? Where will
you try to solve this problem? The problem of high turn over and decline in the friendly atmosphere at
the restaurant has to be researched.
The study of research methods provides you with the knowledge and skills you need to solve the
problem and meet the challenges of a fast-paced decision-making environment. A systematic inquiry
whose objective is to provide information to the problems (be they managerial as in our example) is one
way to explain research.
What is Research?
Research Methods –STA630 VU
©CopyrightVirtualUniversityofPakistan 2
General image of the research is that it has something to do with the laboratory where scientists are
supposedly doing some experiments. Somebody who is interviewing consumers to find out their
opinion about the new packaging of milk is also doing research. Research is simply the process of
finding solutions to a problem after through study and analysis of the situational factors. It is gathering
information needed to answer a question, and thereby help in solving a problem. We do not do study in
any haphazard manner. Instead we try to follow a system or a procedure in an organized manner. It is
all the more necessary in case we want to repeat the study, or somebody else wants to verify our
findings. In the latter case the other person has to follow the same procedure that we followed. Hence
not only we have to do the study in a systematic manner but also that system should be known to others.
What is the value of Research?
The nature of research problems could vary. Problems may refer to some undesirable situation or these
may refer to simply a curiosity of the researcher that may be agitating his or her mind. For example, in a
recent BA/BS examination of the Punjab University 67 percent of the students failed. That is a colossal
wastage of the resources, hence an undesirable situation that needs research to find a solution. The
researcher may come up with a variety of reasons that may relate with the students, the teachers, the
curricula, the availability of books, the examination system, the family environment of the student, and
many more. So a study may be carried out diagnose the situation, and the recommendations to be
applied to overcome the undesirable situation of mass failure of students.
In the same examination result one finds that girls have captured a good number of top positions; and
that is happening for the last couple of years. One gets curious and tries to do research for finding out
the reasons. This is an academic problem but certainly a research problem. Conducting such research
offers the pleasure of solving a puzzle. Why the girls are catching most of the top positions in
different examination? This might be a puzzle that the research may like to explain. Such findings
make a good contribution to the body of knowledge i.e. making some good discoveries as part of the
basic research. Finding answer to any enigma is self satisfying.
The researchers try to make use of their findings for generating theories and models that could be used
for understanding human behavior and the functioning of different structures both at the micro
(organizational) and macro (societal) level.
Research Methods –STA630 VU
©CopyrightVirtualUniversityofPakistan 3
Therefore, research may be considered as an organized, systematic, data based, critical, objective,
scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding
answers or solutions to it. In this way research provides the needed information that guides the planners
to make informed decisions to successfully deal with the problems. The information provided could be
the result of a careful analysis of data gathered firsthand or of the data that are already available with an
organization. .
The value of research for policy makers, planners, business managers, and other stakeholders is that it
reduces uncertainty by providing information that improves the decision-making process. The decision
making process associated with the development and implementation of a strategy involves four
interrelated stages:
1. Identifying problems or opportunities;
2. Diagnosing and assessing problems or opportunities;
3. Selecting and implementing a course of action; and
4. Evaluating thee course of action.
Identifying problems and solutions to the same problems is in fact applying the research findings to
overcome an undesirable situation. Initially a problem may appear to be simply a ‘tip of the iceberg’ but
the study by a professional might help locating the magnitude of the issue as well as its solutions. Such
research is usually referred to as applied research, which shall be discussed in detail in the coming
lectures.
Research helps in developing methodologies
By now we know that the researchers have to develop methodologies for carrying out the research.
These methodologies are for the collection of data, data processing and data analysis. For the new
researchers these methodologies are already available, most of the researchers just use these.
Nevertheless, there is always a scope for improvement and certainly new methodologies are developed.
Also we try to borrow methodologies from sister subjects.
Managers and administrators with knowledge of research have an advantage over those who are
without. Though a manager/administrator him/herself may not be doing any major research yet he/she
will have to understand, predict, and control events that are dysfunctional to the organization. For
example, a new product developed may not be “taking off,” or a financial investment may not be
“paying off” as anticipated. Such disturbing phenomena have to be understood and explained. Unless
this is done, it will not be possible to predict the future of that product or the prospects of that
investment, and how future catastrophic outcomes can be controlled. A grasp of research methods will
enable managers/administrators to understand, predict, and control their environment.
Managers may not be doing the research themselves, in fact they could hire the services of
professionals, and still they should be well conversant with research methodologies. The manager who
is knowledgeable about research can interact effectively with outside researchers or consultants.
Knowledge about research processes, design, and interpretation of data also helps managers to become
discriminating recipients of the research findings presented, and to determine whether or not the
recommended solution are appropriate for implementation.
We are surrounded by research
For the understanding of the professional works, incorporation of the new findings in the practical
situations, and for the implementation of the recommendations in policy/planning, the managers have to
be well conversant with researchers. Many of you may be preparing yourselves for such managerial
positions, I am sure training in research methodology will certainly be helpful in your career.
Research Methods –STA630 VU
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Lesson 2
SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF RESEARCH & ITS SPECIAL FEATURES
Research produces knowledge which could be used for the solution of problems as well as for the
generation of universal theories, principles and laws. But all knowledge is not science. The critical
factor that separates scientific knowledge from other ways of acquiring knowledge is that it uses
scientific approach. What is this approach? Or what is science?
When most people hear the word science, the first image that comes to mind is one of test tubes,
computers, rocket ships, and people in white lab coats. These outward trappings are part of science.
Some sciences, such as the natural sciences deal with the physical and material world. Some other
sciences involve the study of people – their beliefs, behavior, interactions, attitudes, institutions, and so
forth. They are sometimes called soft sciences. This is not that their work is sloppy or lack rigor but
because their subject matter, human social life, is fluid, formidable to observe, and hard to measure
precisely with laboratory instruments. The subject matter of a science (e.g. human attitudes,
protoplasm, or galaxies) determines the techniques and instruments (e.g. surveys, microscopes, or
telescopes) used by it.
Science is a way to produce knowledge, which is based on truth and attempts to be universal. In other
words science is a method, a procedure to produce knowledge i.e. discovering universalities/principles,
laws, and theories through the process of observation and re-observation. Observation here implies that
scientists use “sensory experiences” for the study of the phenomena. They use their five senses, which
are possessed by every normal human being. They not only do the observation of a phenomenon but
also repeat the observation, may be several times. The researchers do so because they want to be
accurate and definite about their findings
Re-observation may be made by the same researcher at a different time and place or done by other
professionals at some other time or place. All such observations are made in this universe where a
normal professional human being can go, make the observation and come back. Therefore we are
focusing on this universe not on the one hereafter. By repeating the observation, the researchers want to
be definite and positive about their findings. Those who want to be definite and positive are often
referred to as positivists. The researchers do not leave their findings into scattered bits and pieces.
Rather the results are organized, systematized, and made part of the existing body of knowledge; and
this is how the knowledge grows. All this procedure for the creation of knowledge is called a scientific
method, whereby the consequent knowledge may be referred to as scientific knowledge. In this way
science refers to both a system for producing knowledge and the knowledge produced from that system.
Since the subject matters of the researchers differ, therefore, we have the diversification of different
sciences: broadly natural or physical sciences and human sciences.
Important Characteristics of
Scientific Method 1. Empirical
Scientific method is concerned with the realities that are observable through “sensory experiences.” It
generates knowledge which is verifiable by experience or observation. Some of the realities could be
directly observed, like the number of students present in the class and how many of them are male and
how many female. The same students have attitudes, values, motivations, aspirations, and commitments.
These are also realities which cannot be observed directly, but the researchers have designed ways to
observe these indirectly. Any reality that cannot be put to “sensory experience” directly or indirectly
(existence of heaven, the Day of Judgment, life hereafter, God’s rewards for good deeds) does not fall
within the domain of scientific method.
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2. Verifiable
Observations made through scientific method are to be verified again by using the senses to confirm or
refute the previous findings. Such confirmations may have to be made by the same researcher or others.
We will place more faith and credence in those findings and conclusions if similar findings emerge on
the basis of data collected by other researchers using the same methods. To the extent that it does
happen (i.e. the results are replicated or repeated) we will gain confidence in the scientific nature of our
research. Replicability, in this way, is an important characteristic of scientific method. Hence
revelations and intuitions are out of the domain of scientific method.
3. Cumulative
Prior to the start of any study the researchers try to scan through the literature and see that their study is
not a repetition in ignorance. Instead of reinventing the wheel the researchers take stock of the existing
body of knowledge and try to build on it. Also the researchers do not leave their research findings into
scattered bits and pieces. Facts and figures are to be provided with language and thereby inferences
drawn. The results are to be organized and systematized. Nevertheless, we don’t want to leave our
studies as stand alone. A linkage between the present and the previous body of knowledge has to be
established, and that is how the knowledge accumulates. Every new crop of babies does not have to
start from a scratch; the existing body of knowledge provides a huge foundation on which the
researchers build on and hence the knowledge keeps on growing.
4. Deterministic
Science is based on the assumption that all events have antecedent causes that are subject to
identification and logical understanding. For the scientist, nothing “just happens” – it happens for a
reason. The scientific researchers try to explain the emerging phenomenon by identifying its causes. Of
the identified causes which ones can be the most important? For example, in the 2006 BA/BS
examination of the Punjab University 67 percent of the students failed. What could be the determinants
of such a mass failure of students? The researcher may try to explain this phenomenon and come up
with variety of reasons which may pertain to students, teachers, administration, curriculum, books,
examination system, and so on. Looking into such a large number of reasons may be highly
cumbersome model for problem solution. It might be appropriate to tell, of all these factors which one
is the most important, the second most important, the third most important, which two in combination
are the most important. The researcher tries to narrow down the number of reasons in such a way that
some action could taken. Therefore, the achievement of a meaningful, rather than an elaborate and
cumbersome, model for problem solution becomes a critical issue in research. That is parsimony which
implies the explanation with the minimum number of variables that are responsible for an undesirable
situation.
5. Ethical and Ideological Neutrality
The conclusions drawn through interpretation of the results of data analysis should be objective; that is,
they should be based on the facts of the findings derived from actual data, and not on our own subjective
or emotional values. For instance, if we had a hypothesis that stated that greater participation in
decision making will increase organizational commitment, and this was not supported by the results, it
makes no sense if the researcher continues to argue that increased opportunities for employee
participation would still help. Such an argument would be based, not on the factual, data based research
findings, but on the subjective opinion of the researcher. If this was the conviction of the researcher all
along, then there was no need to do the research in the first place.
Researchers are human beings, having individual ideologies, religious affiliations, cultural differences
which can influence the research findings. Any interference of their personal likings and dis-likings in
their research can contaminate the purity of the data, which ultimately can affect the predictions made
by the researcher. Therefore, one of the important characteristics of scientific method is to follow the
principle of objectivity, uphold neutrality, and present the results in an unbiased manner.
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Logicians distinguish between inductive reasoning (from particular instances to general
principles, from facts to theories) and deductive reasoning (from the general to the particular,
6. Statistical Generalization
Generalisability refers to the scope of the research findings in one organizational setting to other
settings. Obviously, the wider the range of applicability of the solutions generated by research, the more
useful the research is to users. For instance, if a researcher’s findings that participation in decision
making enhances organizational commitment are found to be true in a variety of manufacturing,
industrial, and service organizations, and not merely in the particular organization studied by the
researcher, the generalisability of the findings to other organizational settings is enhanced. The more
generalizable the research, the greater its usefulness and value.
For wider generalisability, the research sampling design has to be logically developed and a number of
other details in the data collection methods need to be meticulously followed. Here the use of statistics
is very helpful. Statistics is device for comparing what is observed and what is logically expected. The
use of statistics becomes helpful in making generalizations, which is one of the goals of scientific
method.
7. Rationalism
Science is fundamentally a rational activity, and the scientific explanation must make sense. Religion
may rest on revelations, custom, or traditions, gambling on faith, but science must rest on logical reason.
There are two distinct logical systems important to the scientific quest, referred to as deductive logic
and inductive logic. Beveridge describes them as follows:
applying a theory to a particular case). In induction one starts from observed data and
develops a generalization which explains the relationships between the objects observed. On
the other hand, in deductive reasoning one starts from some general law and applies it to a
particular instance.
The classical illustration of deductive logic is the familiar syllogism: “All men are mortal; Mahmood is
man; therefore Mahmood is mortal.” A researcher might then follow up this deductive exercise with an
empirical test of Mahmood’s mortality.
Using inductive logic, the researcher might begin by noting that Mahmood is mortal and observing a
number of other mortals as well. He might then note that all the observed mortals were men, thereby
arriving at the tentative conclusion that all men are mortal.
In practice, scientific research involves both inductive and deductive reasoning as the scientist shifts
endlessly back and forth between theory and empirical observations.
There could be some other aspects of scientific method (e.g. self correcting) but what is important is that
all features are interrelated. Scientists may not adhere to all these characteristics. For example,
objectivity is often violated especially in the study of human behavior, particularly when human beings
are studied by the human beings. Personal biases of the researchers do contaminate the findings.
Looking at the important features of scientific method one might say that there are two power bases of
scientific knowledge: (1) empiricism i.e. sensory experiences or observation, and (2) rationalism i.e. the
logical explanations for regularity and then consequent ional argumentation for making generalizations
(theory).
Finally it may be said that anybody who is following the scientific procedure of doing research is doing
a scientific research; and the knowledge generated by such research is scientific knowledge. Depending
upon the subject matter, we try to divide the sciences into physical or natural sciences and the social
sciences. Due to the nature of the subject matter of the social sciences, it is rather very difficult to apply
the scientific method of research rigorously and that is why the predictions made by the social
researchers are not as dependable as the predictions made by the natural scientists.
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Lesson 3
CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH
Research comes in many shapes and sizes. Before a researcher begins to conduct a study, he or she
must decide on a specific type of research. Good researchers understand the advantages and
disadvantages of each type, although most end up specializing in one.
For classification of research we shall look from four dimensions:
1. The purpose of doing research;
2. The intended uses of research;
3. How it treats time i.e. the time dimension in research; and
4. The research (data collection) techniques used in it.
The four dimensions reinforce each other; that is, a purpose tends to go with certain techniques and
particular uses. Few studies are pure types, but the dimensions simplify the complexity of conducting
research.
1. Purpose of Doing Research
If we ask someone why he or she is conducting a study, we might get a range of responses: “My boss
told me to do”; “It was a class assignment”; “I was curious.” There are almost as many reasons to do
research as there are researches. Yet the purposes of research may be organized into three groups based
on what the researcher is trying to accomplish – explore a new topic, describe a social phenomenon, or
explain why something occurs. Studies may have multiple purposes (e.g. both to explore and to
describe) but one purpose usually dominates.
a. Exploratory/Formulative Research
You may be exploring a new topic or issue in order to learn about it. If the issue was new or the
researcher has written little on it, you began at the beginning. This is called exploratory research. The
researcher’s goal is to formulate more precise questions that future research can answer. Exploratory
research may be the first stage in a sequence of studies. A researcher may need to know enough to
design and execute a second, more systematic and extensive study.
Initial research conducted to clarify the nature of the problem. When a researcher has a limited
amount of experience with or knowledge about a research issue, exploratory research is useful
preliminary step that helps ensure that a more rigorous, more conclusive future study will not begin with
an inadequate understanding of the nature of the management problem. The findings discovered
through exploratory research would the researchers to emphasize learning more about the particulars of
the findings in subsequent conclusive studies.
Exploratory research rarely yields definitive answers. It addresses the “what” question: “what is this
social activity really about?” It is difficult to conduct because there are few guidelines to follow.
Specifically there could be a number of goals of exploratory research.
Goals of Exploratory Research:
1. Become familiar with the basic facts, setting, and concerns;
2. Develop well grounded picture of the situation;
3. Develop tentative theories, generate new ideas, conjectures, or hypotheses;
4. Determine the feasibility of conducting the study;
5. Formulate questions and refine issues for more systematic inquiry; and
6. Develop techniques and a sense of direction for future research.
For exploratory research, the researcher may use different sources for getting information like (1)
experience surveys, (2) secondary data analysis, (3) case studies, and (4) pilot studies.
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As part of the experience survey the researcher tries to contact individuals who are knowledgeable about
a particular research problem. This constitutes an informal experience survey.
Another economical and quick source of background information is secondary data analysis. It is
preliminary review of data collected for another purpose to clarify issues in the early stages of a
research effort.
The purpose of case study is to obtain information from one or a few situations that are similar to the
researcher’s problem situation. A researcher interested in doing a nationwide survey among union
workers, may first look at a few local unions to identify the nature of any problems or topics that should
be investigated.
A pilot study implies that some aspect of the research is done on a small scale. For this purpose focus
group discussions could be carried out.
b. Descriptive Research
Descriptive research presents a picture of the specific details of a situation, social setting, or
relationship. The major purpose of descriptive research, as the term implies, is to describe
characteristics of a population or phenomenon. Descriptive research seeks to determine the answers to
who, what, when, where, and how questions. Labor Force Surveys, Population Census, and Educational
Census are examples of such research.
Descriptive study offers to the researcher a profile or description of relevant aspects of the phenomena
of interest. Look at the class in research methods and try to give its profile – the characteristics of the
students. When we start to look at the relationship of the variables, then it may help in diagnosis
analysis.
Goals of Descriptive Research
1. Describe the situation in terms of its characteristics i.e. provide an accurate profile of a group;
2. Give a verbal or numerical picture (%) of the situation;
3. Present background information;
4. Create a set of categories or classify the information;
5. Clarify sequence, set of stages; and
6. Focus on ‘who,’ ‘what,’ ‘when,’ ‘where,’ and ‘how’ but not why?
A great deal of social research is descriptive. Descriptive researchers use most data –gathering
techniques – surveys, field research, and content analysis
c. Explanatory Research
When we encounter an issue that is already known and have a description of it, we might begin to
wonder why things are the way they are. The desire to know “why,” to explain, is the purpose of
explanatory research. It builds on exploratory and descriptive research and goes on to identify the
reasons for something that occurs. Explanatory research looks for causes and reasons. For example, a
descriptive research may discover that 10 percent of the parents abuse their children, whereas the
explanatory researcher is more interested in learning why parents abuse their children.
Goals of Explanatory Research
1. Explain things not just reporting. Why? Elaborate and enrich a theory’s explanation.
2. Determine which of several explanations is best.
3. Determine the accuracy of the theory; test a theory’s predictions or principle.
4. Advance knowledge about underlying process.
5. Build and elaborate a theory; elaborate and enrich a theory’s predictions or principle.
6. Extend a theory or principle to new areas, new issues, new topics:
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7. Provide evidence to support or refute an explanation or prediction.
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Basic research is the source of most new scientific
8. Test a theory’s predictions or principles
2. The Uses of Research
Some researchers focus on using research to advance general knowledge, whereas others use it to solve
specific problems. Those who seek an understanding of the fundamental nature of social reality are
engaged in basic research (also called academic research or pure research or fundamental research).
Applied researchers, by contrast, primarily want to apply and tailor knowledge to address a specific
practical issue. They want to answer a policy question or solve a pressing social and economic problem.
a. Basic Research
Basic research advances fundamental knowledge about the human world. It focuses on refuting or
supporting theories that explain how this world operates, what makes things happen, why social
relations are a certain way, and why society changes.
ideas and ways of thinking about the world. It can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory; however,
explanatory research is the most common.
Basic research generates new ideas, principles and theories, which may not be immediately utilized;
though are the foundations of modern progress and development in different fields. Today’s computers
could not exist without the pure research in mathematics conducted over a century ago, for which there
was no known practical application at that time.
Police officers trying to prevent delinquency or counselors of youthful offenders may see little relevance
to basic research on the question, “Why does deviant behavior occur?” Basic research rarely helps
practitioners directly with their everyday concerns. Nevertheless, it stimulates new ways of thinking
about deviance that have the potential to revolutionize and dramatically improve how practitioners deal
with a problem.
A new idea or fundamental knowledge is not generated only by basic research. Applied research, too,
can build new knowledge. Nonetheless, basic research is essential for nourishing the expansion of
knowledge. Researchers at the center of the scientific community conduct most of the basic research.
b. Applied Research
Applied researchers try to solve specific policy problems or help practitioners accomplish tasks. Theory
is less central to them than seeking a solution on a specific problem for a limited setting. Applied
research is frequently a descriptive research, and its main strength is its immediate practical use.
Applied research is conducted when decision must be made about a specific real-life problem. Applied
research encompasses those studies undertaken to answer questions about specific problems or to make
decisions about a particular course of action or policy. For example, an organization contemplating a
paperless office and a networking system for the company’s personal computers may conduct research
to learn the amount of time its employees spend at personal computers in an average week.
c. Basic and Applied Research Compared
The procedures and techniques utilized by basic and applied researchers do not differ substantially.
Both employ the scientific method to answer the questions at hand.
The scientific community is the primary consumer of basic research. The consumers of applied research
findings are practitioners such as teachers, counselors, and caseworkers, or decision makers such as
managers, committees, and officials. Often, someone other than the researcher who conducted the study
uses the results of applied research. This means that applied researchers have an obligation to translate
findings from scientific technical language into the language of decision makers or practitioners.
The results of applied research are less likely to enter the public domain in publications. Results may be
available only to a small number of decision makers or practitioners, who decide whether or how to put
the research results into practice and who may or may not use the results.
Applied and basic researchers adopt different orientations toward research methodology. Basic
researchers emphasize high standards and try to conduct near-perfect research. Applied researchers
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make more trade-offs. They may compromise scientific rigor to get quick, usable results. Compromise
is no excuse for sloppy research, however. Applied researchers squeeze research into the constraints of
an applied setting and balance rigor against practical needs. Such balancing requires an in-depth
knowledge of research and an awareness of the consequences of compromising standards.
d. Types of Applied Research
Practitioners use several types of applied research. Some of the major ones are:
i) Action research: The applied research that treats knowledge as a form of power and abolishes the line
between research and social action. Those who are being studied participate in the research process;
research incorporates ordinary or popular knowledge; research focuses on power with a goal of
empowerment; research seeks to raise consciousness or increase awareness; and research is tied directly
to political action.
The researchers try to advance a cause or improve conditions by expanding public awareness.
They are explicitly political, not value neutral. Because the goal is to improve the conditions of research
participants, formal reports, articles, or books become secondary. Action researchers assume that
knowledge develops from experience, particularly the experience of social-political action. They also
assume that ordinary people can become aware of conditions and learn to take actions that can bring
about improvement.
ii) Impact Assessment Research: Its purpose is to estimate the likely consequences of a planned change.
Such an assessment is used for planning and making choices among alternative policies – to make an
impact assessment of Basha Dam on the environment; to determine changes in housing if a major new
highway is built.
iii) Evaluation Research: It addresses the question, “Did it work?” The process of establishing value
judgment based on evidence about the achievement of the goals of a program. Evaluation research
measures the effectiveness of a program, policy, or way of doing something. “Did the program work?”
“Did it achieve its objectives?” Evaluation researchers use several research techniques (survey, field
research).
Practitioners involved with a policy or program may conduct evaluation research for their own
information or at the request of outside decision makers, who sometime place limits on researchers by
setting boundaries on what can be studied and determining the outcome of interest.
Two types of evaluation research are formative and summative. Formative evaluation is built-in
monitoring or continuous feedback on a program used for program management. Summative evaluation
looks at final program outcomes. Both are usually necessary.
3. The Time Dimension in Research
Another dimension of research is the treatment of time. Some studies give us a snapshot of a single,
fixed time point and allow us to analyze it in detail. Other studies provide a moving picture that lets us
follow events, people, or sale of products over a period of time. In this way from the angle of time
research could be divided into two broad types:
a.
time. Cross-sectional research is usually the simplest and least costly alternative. Its
disadvantage is that it cannot capture the change processes. Cross-sectional research can be
exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory, but it is most consistent with a descriptive approach to
research.
b. Longitudinal Research. Researchers using longitudinal research examine features of people or
other units at more than one time. It is usually more complex and costly than cross-sectional
research but it is also more powerful, especially when researchers seek answers to questions
about change. There are three types of longitudinal research: time series, panel, and cohort.
Cross-Sectional Research . In cross-sectional research, researchers observe at one point in
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i. Time series research is longitudinal study in which the same type of information is
collected on a group of people or other units across multiple time periods. Researcher can
observe stability or change in the features of the units or can track conditions overtime.
One could track the characteristics of students registering in the course on Research
Methods over a period of four years i.e. the characteristics (Total, age characteristics,
gender distribution, subject distribution, and geographic distribution). Such an analysis
could tell us the trends in the characteristic over the four years.
ii. The panel study is a powerful type of longitudinal research. In panel study, the researcher
observes exactly the same people, group, or organization across time periods. It is a
difficult to carry out such study. Tracking people over time is often difficult because some
people die or cannot be located. Nevertheless, the results of a well-designed panel study are
very valuable.
iii. A cohort analysis is similar to the panel study, but rather than observing the exact same
people, a category of people who share a similar life experience in a specified time period is
studied. The focus is on the cohort, or category, not on specific individuals. Commonly
used cohorts include all people born in the same year (called birth cohorts), all people hired
at the same time, all people retire on one or two year time frame, and all people who
graduate in a given year. Unlike panel studies, researchers do not have to locate the exact
same people for cohort studies. The only need to identify those who experienced a common
life event.
4. Research (data collection) Techniques Used
Every researcher collects data using one or more techniques. The techniques may be grouped into two
categories: quantitative, collecting data in thee form of numbers, and qualitative,
form of words or pictures.
a. Quantitative
The main quantitative techniques are:
1. Experiments
2. Surveys
3. Content Analysis
4. Using Existing Statistics
b. Qualitative
The major qualitative techniques of research are:
Field Research
Case Study
Focus Group Discussion
Details about the quantitative and qualitative techniques of research shall be discussed later.
1.
2.
3.
collecting data in the
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Lesson 4
THEORY AND RESEARCH
The purpose of science concerns the expansion of knowledge, the discovery of truth and to make
predictions. Theory building is the means by which the basic researchers hope to achieve this purpose.
A scientist poses questions like: What produces inflation? Does student-teacher interaction influence
students’ performance? In both these questions there is the element of prediction i.e. that if we do such
and such, then so and so will happen. In fact we are looking for explanation for the issue that has been
raised in these questions. Underlying the explanation is the whole process through which the
phenomenon emerges, and we would like to understand the process to reach prediction.
Prediction and understanding are the two purposes of theory. Accomplishing the first goal allows the
theorist to predict the behavior or characteristics of one phenomenon from the knowledge of another
phenomenon’s characteristics. A business researcher may theorize that older investors tend to be more
interested in investment income than younger investors. This theory, once verified, should allow
researchers to predict the importance of expected dividend yield on the basis of investors’ age. The
researcher would also like to understand the process. In most of the situations prediction and
understanding the process go hand in hand i.e. to predict the phenomenon, we must have an explanation
of why variables behave as they do. Theories provide these explanations.
Theory
As such theory is a systematic and general attempt to explain something like: Why do people commit
crimes? How do the media affect us? Why do some people believe in God? Why do people get
married? Why do kids play truant from school? How is our identity shaped by culture? Each of these
questions contains a reference to some observed phenomenon. A suggested explanation for the observed
phenomenon is theory. More formally, a theory is a coherent set of general propositions, used as
principles of explanations of the apparent relationship of certain observed phenomena. A key element
in this definition is the term proposition.
A systematic and
general attempt to
explain something…
“Why do people
commit crimes?”
“Theory”
A suggested
explanation for
something…
“Why do
people get
married?”
“How does the
media affect us?” “Why do kids play truant
from school?”
“Why do some people
believe in God?” “How is our identity
shaped by culture?”
Concepts
Theory development is essentially a process of describing phenomena at increasingly higher levels of
abstraction. A concept (or construct) is a generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes,
occurrences, or processes that has been given a name. Such names are created or developed or
constructed for the identification of the phenomenon, be it physical or non-physical. All these may be
considered as empirical realities e.g. leadership, productivity, morale, motivation, inflation, happiness,
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banana.
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Concepts are
Abstractions of Reality
CONCEPTS
OBSERVATION OF OBJECTS
AND EVENTS (REALITY)
Empirical
Level
Abstract
Level
Concepts are the building block of a theory. Concepts abstract reality. That is, concepts are expressed in
words, letters, signs, and symbols that refer to various events or objects. For example, the concept
“asset” is an abstract term that may, in the concrete world of reality, refer to a specific punch press
machine. Concepts, however, may vary in degree of abstraction and we can put them in a ladder of
abstraction, indicating different levels.
Moving up the ladder of abstraction, the basic concept becomes more abstract, wider in scope, and
less amenable to measurement. The scientific researcher operates at two levels: on the abstract level of
concepts (and propositions) and on the empirical level of variables (and hypotheses). At the empirical
level we “experience” reality – that is we observe the objects or events. In this example the reality has
been given a name i.e. banana. Moving up the ladder this reality falls in wider reality i.e. fruit, which in
turn becomes part of further wider reality called as vegetation.
Researchers are concerned with the observable world, or what we may call as “reality.” We try to
construct names to such empirical reality for its identification, which may referred to as concept at an
abstract level.
Theorists translate their conceptualization of reality into abstract ideas. Thus theory deals with
abstraction. Things are not the essence of theory; ideas are. Concepts in isolation are not theories.
Only when we explain how concepts relate to other concepts we begin to construct theories.
A Ladder Of Abstraction
For Concepts
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Propositions
Concepts are the basic units of theory development. However, theories require an understanding of the
relationship among concepts. Thus, once reality is abstracted into concepts, the scientist is interested in
the relationship among various concepts. Propositions are statements concerned with the logical
relationships among concepts. A proposition explains the logical linkage among certain concepts by
asserting a universal connection between concepts.
Theory is an abstraction from observed reality. Concepts are at one level of abstraction. Investigating
propositions requires that we increase our level abstract thinking. When we think about theories, we are
at the highest level of abstraction because we are investigating the relationship between propositions.
Theory is a network of propositions.
Theory and Research
Basic to modern science is an intricate relation between theory and research. The popular understanding
of this relationship obscures more than it illuminates. Popular opinion generally conceives of these as
direct opposites: theory is confused with speculation, and thus theory remains speculation until it is
proved. When this proof is made, theory becomes fact. Facts are thought to be definite, certain, without
question, and their meaning to be self evident.
When we look at what scientists actually do when engaged in research, it becomes clear (1) that theory
and fact are not diametrically opposed, but inextricably intertwined; (2) that theory is not speculation;
and (3) that scientists are very much concerned with both theory and fact (research).
Hence research produces facts and from facts we can generate theories. Theories are soft mental images
whereas research covers the empirical world of hard, settled, and observable things. In this way theory
and fact (research) contribute to each other.
Role of Theory
1. Theory as orientation.
A major function of a theoretical system is that it narrows the range of facts to be studied. Any
phenomenon or object may be studied in many different ways. A football, for example, can be
investigated within an economic framework, as we ascertain the patterns of demand and supply relating
to this play object. It may also be the object of chemical research, for it is made of organic chemicals.
Theory Building Is A Process Of
Increasing Abstraction
Theories
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It has a mass and may be studied as physical object undergoing different stresses and attaining certain
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velocities under various conditions. It may also be seen as the center of many sociologically interesting
activities – play, communication, group organization, etc.
Each science and each specialization within a broader field abstracts from reality, keeping its attention
upon a few aspects of given phenomena rather than on all aspects. The broad orientation of each field
then focuses upon limited range of things while ignoring or making assumptions about others.
2. Theory as a conceptualization and classification.
Every science is organized by a structure of concepts, which refer to major processes and objects to be
studied. It is the relationship between these concepts which are stated in “the facts of science.” Such
terms make up the vocabulary that the scientist uses. If knowledge is to be organized, there must be
some system imposed upon the facts which are observable. As a consequence, a major task in any
science is the development of development of classification, a structure of concepts, and an increasingly
precise set of definitions for these terms.
3. Theory in summarizing role.
A further task which theory performs is to summarize concisely what is already known about the object
of study. These summaries may be divided into two simple categories: (1) empirical generalizations,
and (2) systems of relationships between propositions.
Although the scientist may think of his field as a complex structure of relationships, most of his daily
work is concerned with prior task: the simple addition of data, expressed in empirical generalizations.
The demographer may tabulate births and deaths during a given period in order to ascertain the crude
rate of reproduction. These facts are useful and are summarized in simple or complex theoretical
relationships. As body of summarizing statements develops, it is possible to see relationships between
thee statements.
Theorizing on a still larger scale, some may attempt to integrate the major empirical generalizations of
an era. From time to time in any science, there will be changes in this
It is through systems of propositions that many of our common statements must be interpreted. Facts
are seen within a framework rather than in an isolated fashion.
4. Theory predicts facts.
If theory summarizes facts and states a general uniformity beyond the immediate observation, it also
becomes a prediction of facts. This prediction has several facets. The most obvious is the extrapolation
from the known to the unknown. For example, we may observe that in every known case the
introduction of Western technology has led to a sharp drop in the death rate and a relatively minor drop
in the birth rate of a given nation, at least during the initial stages. Thus we predict that if Western
technology is introduced into a native culture, we shall find this process again taking place.
Correspondingly we predict that in a region where Western technology has already been introduced, we
shall find that this process has occurred.
5. Theory points gaps in knowledge.
Since theory summarizes the known facts and predicts facts which have not been observed, it must also
point to areas which have not yet been explored.
Theory also points to gaps of a more basic kind. While these gaps are being filled, changes in the
conceptual scheme usually occur. An example from criminology may be taken. Although a substantial
body of knowledge had been built up concerning criminal behavior and it causes. A body of theory
dealing with causation was oriented almost exclusively to the crimes committed by the lower classes.
Very little attention has been paid to the crimes committed by the middle class or, more specifically, to
the crimes labeled as “white collar” and which grow out of the usual activities of businessmen. Such a
gap would not be visible if our facts were not systematized and organized. As a consequence, we may
say that theory does suggest where our knowledge is deficient.
Role of Facts (Research)
Theory and fact are in constant interaction. Developments in one may lead to developments in the
other. Theory, implicit or explicit, is basic to knowledge and even perception. Theory is not merely a
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passive element. It plays an active role in the uncovering of facts. We should expect that “fact” has an
equally significant part to play in the development of theory. Science actually depends upon a
continuous stimulation of fact by theory and of theory by fact.
1. Facts initiate theory.
Many of the human interest stories in the history of science describe how a striking fact, sometimes
stumbled upon, led to important theories. This is what the public thinks of as a “discovery.” Examples
may be taken from many sciences: accidental finding that the penicillium fungus inhibits bacterial
growth; many errors in reading, speaking, or seeing are not accidental but have deep and systematic
causes. Many of these stories take an added drama in the retelling, but they express a fundamental fact
in the growth of science, that an apparently simple observation may lead to significant theory.
2. Facts lead to the rejection and reformulation of existing theory.
Facts do not completely determine theory, since many possible theories can be developed to take
account of a specific set of observation. Nevertheless, facts are the more stubborn of the two. Any
theory must adjust to facts and is rejected or reformulated if they cannot be fitted into its structure.
Since research is continuing activity, rejection and reformulation are likely to be going on
simultaneously. Observations are gradually accumulated which seem to cast doubt upon existing
theory. While new tests are being planned, new formulations of theory are developed which might fit
these new facts.
3. Facts redefine and clarify theory.
Usually thee scientist has investigated his/her problem for a long time prior to actual field or laboratory
test and is not surprised by his/her results. It is rare that he/she finds a fact that simply does not fit prior
theory.
New facts that fit thee theory will always redefine the theory, for they state in detail what the theory
states in very general terms. They clarify that theory, for they throw further light upon its concepts.
Theory and Research: the Dynamic Duo
Theory and research are interrelated; the dichotomy between theory and research is an artificial. The
value of theory and its necessity for conducting good research should be clear. Researchers who
proceed without theory rarely conduct top-quality research and frequently find themselves in confusion.
Researchers weave together knowledge from different studies into more abstract theory. Likewise, who
proceed without linking theory to research or anchoring it to empirical reality are in jeopardy of floating
off into incomprehensible speculation and conjecture.
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Lesson 5
CONCEPTS
Things we observe are the observable realities, which could be physical or abstract. For purposes of
identification of reality we try to give a name to it. By using the name we communicate with others and
over time it becomes part of our language.
A concept is a generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that has
been given a name. In other words a concept is an idea expressed as a symbol or in words. Natural
science concepts are often expressed in symbolic forms. Most social science concepts are expressed as
words. Words, after all, are symbols too; they are symbols we learn with language. Height is a concept
with which all of you are familiar. In a sense, a language is merely an agreement to represent ideas by
sound or written characters that people learned at some point in their lives. Learning concepts and
theory is like learning language.
Concepts are an Abstraction of Reality
Concepts are everywhere, and you use them all the time. Height is simple concept form everyday
experience. What does it mean? It is easy to use the concept of height, but describing the concept itself
is difficult. It represents an abstract idea about physical reality, or an abstraction of reality. Height is a
characteristic of physical objects, the distance from top to bottom. All people, buildings, trees,
mountains, books and so forth have height. The word height refers to an abstract idea. We associate its
sound and its written form with that idea. There is nothing inherent in the sounds that make up the word
and the idea it represents. The connection is arbitrary, but it is still useful. People can express the
abstract idea to one another using thee symbols.
In other words concepts are the abstractions of reality – physical of non-physical like table, leadership,
productivity, and morale are all labels given to some phenomenon (reality). The concepts stand for
phenomenon not the phenomenon itself; hence it may be called an abstraction of empirical reality.
Degree of Abstraction
Concepts vary in their level of abstraction. They are on a continuum from the most concrete to the most
abstract. Very concrete ones refer to straightforward physical objects or familiar experiences (e.g.
height, school, age, family income, or housing). More abstract concepts refer to ideas that have a
diffuse, indirect expression (e.g. family dissolution, racism, political power)
The organization of concepts in sequence from the most
concrete and individual to the most
general indicates the degree of abstraction. Moving up the ladder of abstraction, the basic concept
becomes more abstract, wider in scope, and less amenable to measurement. The scientific researcher
operates at two levels of concepts (and propositions) and on the empirical level of variables. At the
empirical level we experience reality – that is we observe objects or events.
Sources of Concepts
Everyday culture is filled with concepts, but many of them have vague and unclear definitions.
Likewise, the values and experiences of people in a culture may limit everyday concepts. Nevertheless,
we borrow concepts from everyday culture; though these to be refined.
We create concepts from personal experiences, creative thought, or observation. The classical theorist
originated many concepts like family system, gender role, socialization, self-worth, frustration, and
displaced aggression.
We also borrow concepts from sister disciplines.
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Importance of Concepts
Social science concepts form a specialized language, or jargon. Specialists use jargon as a short hand
way to communicate with one another. Most fields have their own jargon. Physicians, lawyers,
engineers, accountants, plumbers, and auto mechanics all have specialized languages. They use their
jargon to refer to the ideas and objects with which they work. Special problems grow out of the need
for concept precision and inventiveness. Vague meanings attached to a concept create problems of
measurement. Therefore, not only the construction of concepts is necessary but also these should be
precise and the researchers should have some agreement to its meaning.
Identification of concepts is necessary because we use concepts in hypothesis formulation. Here too one
of the characteristics of a good hypothesis is that it should be conceptually clear.
The success of research hinges on (1) how clearly we conceptualize and (2) how well others understand
the concept we use. For example we might ask respondents for an estimate of their family income. This
may seem to be a simple, unambiguous concept, but we may receive varying and confusing answers
unless we restrict or narrow the concept by specifying:
• Time period, such as weekly, monthly, or annually.
• Before or after income taxes.
• For head of the family only or for all family members.
• For salary and wages only or also for dividends, interest, and capital gains.
• Income in kind, such as free rent, employee discounts, or food stamps.
Definitions
Confusion about the meaning of concepts can destroy a research study’s value without the researcher or
client even knowing it. If words have different meanings to the parties involved, then they are not
communicating on the same wave-length. Definitions are one way to reduce this danger.
Dictionary Definitions
Researchers must struggle with two types of definitions. In the more familiar dictionary, a concept is
defined with synonyms. For example, a customer is defined as a patron: a patron, in turn, is defined as
customer or client of an establishment; a client is defined as one who employs the services of any
professional …, also loosely, a patron of any shop. These circular definitions may be adequate for
general communication but not for research.
Dictionary definitions are also called conceptual or theoretical or nominal definitions. Conceptual
definition is a definition in abstract, theoretical terms. It refers to other ideas or constructs. There is no
magical way to turn a construct into precise conceptual definition. It involves thinking carefully,
observing directly, consulting with others, reading what others have said, and trying possible
definitions.
A single construct can have several definitions, and people may disagree over definitions. Conceptual
definitions are linked to theoretical frameworks and to value positions. For example, a conflict theorist
may define social class as the power and property a group of people in a society has or lacks. A
structural functionalist defines it in terms of individual who share a social status, life-style, or subjective
justification. Although people disagree over definitions, the researcher should always state explicitly
which definition he or she is using.
Some constructs are highly abstract and complex. They contain lower level concepts within them (e.g.
powerlessness), which can be made even more specific (e.g. a feeling of little power over wherever on
lives). Other concepts are concrete and simple (e.g. age). When developing definitions, a researcher
needs to be aware of how complex and abstract a construct is. For example, a concrete construct such
as age is easier to define (e.g. number of years that have passed since birth) than is a complex, abstract
concept such as morale.
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Operational Definition
In research we must measure concepts and constructs, and this requires more rigorous definitions. A
concept must be made operational in order to be measured. An operational definition gives meanings to
a concept by specifying the activities or operations necessary to measure it. An operational definition
specifies what must be done to measure the concept under investigation. It is like a manual of
instruction or a recipe: do such-and-such in so-and-so manner.
Operational definition is also called a working definition stated in terms of specific testing or
measurement criteria. The concepts must have empirical referents (i.e. we must be able to count,
measure, or in some other way gather thee information through our senses). Whether the object to be
defined is physical e.g. a machine tool) or highly abstract (e.g. achievement motivation), the definition
must specify characteristics and how to be observed. The specification and procedures must be so clear
that any competent person using them would classify the objects the same way. So in operational
definition we must specify concrete indicators that can be observed/measured (observable indicators).
Use both Definitions in Research
Look at observable phenomenon, we construct a label for it, then try to define it theoretically, which
gives a lead to the development of criteria for its measurement, and finally we gather thee data.
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varies. There are two
Lesson 06
VARIABLES AND TYPES OF VARIABLES
Variable is central idea in research. Simply defined, variable is a concept that
types of concepts: those that refer to a fixed phenomenon and those that vary in quantity, intensity, or
amount (e.g. amount of education). The second type of concept and measures of the concept are
variables. A variable is defined as anything that varies or changes in value. Variables take on two or
more values. Because variable represents a quality that can exhibit differences in value, usually
magnitude or strength, it may be said that a variable generally is anything that may assume different
numerical or categorical values. Once you begin to look for them, you will see variables everywhere.
For example gender is a variable; it can take two values: male or female. Marital status is a variable; it
can take on values of never married, single, married, divorced, or widowed. Family income is a
variable; it can take on values from zero to billions of Rupees. A person’s attitude toward women
empowerment is variable; it can range from highly favorable to highly unfavorable. In this way the
variation can be in quantity, intensity, amount, or type; the examples can be production units,
absenteeism, gender, religion, motivation, grade, and age. A variable may be situation specific; for
example gender is a variable but if in a particular situation like a class of Research Methods if there are
only female students, then in this situation gender will not be considered as a variable.
Types of Variable
1. Continuous and Discontinuous variables
Variables have different properties and to these properties we assign numerical values. If the values of a
variable can be divided into fractions then we call it a continuous variable. Such a variable can take
infinite number of values. Income, temperature, age, or a test score are examples of continuous
variables. These variables may take on values within a given range or, in some cases, an infinite set.
Any variable that has a limited number of distinct values and which cannot be divided into fractions, is a
discontinuous variable. Such a variable is also called as categorical variable or classificatory variable,
or discrete variable. Some variables have only two values, reflecting the presence or absence of a
property: employed-unemployed or male-female have two values. These variables are referred to as
dichotomous. There are others that can take added categories such as the demographic variables of race,
religion. All such variables that produce data that fit into categories are said to be
discrete/categorical/classificatory, since only certain values are possible. An automotive variable, for
example, where “Chevrolet” is assigned a 5 and “Honda” is assigned a 6, provides no option for a 5.5
(i.e. the values cannot be divided into fractions).
2. Dependent and Independent Variables
Researchers who focus on causal relations usually begin with an effect, and then search for its causes.
The cause variable, or the one that identifies forces or conditions that act on something else, is the
independent variable. The variable that is the effect or is the result or outcome of another variable is the
dependent variable (also referred to as outcome variable or effect variable). The independent variable is
“independent of” prior causes that act on it, whereas the dependent variable “depends on” the cause.
It is not always easy to determine whether a variable is independent or dependent. Two questions help
to identify the independent variable. First, does it come before other variable in time? Second, if the
variables occur at the same time, does the researcher suggest that one variable has an impact on another
variable? Independent variables affect or have an impact on other variables. When independent
variable is present, the dependent variable is also present, and with each unit of increase in the
independent variable, there is an increase or decrease in the dependent variable also. In other words, the
variance in dependent variable is accounted for by the independent variable. Dependent variable is also
referred to as criterion variable.
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In statistical analysis a variable is identified by the symbol (X) for independent variable and by the
symbol (Y) for the dependent variable. In the research vocabulary different labels have been associated
with the independent and dependent variables like:
Independent variable Dependent variable
Presumed cause presumed effect
Stimulus Response
Predicted from … Predicted to …
Antecedent Consequence
Manipulated Measured outcome
Predictor Criterion .
Research studies indicate that successful new product development has an influence on the stock market
price of a company. That is, the more successful the new product turns out to be, the higher will be the
stock market price of that firm. Therefore, the success of the
New product is the independent variable, and stock market price the dependent variable.
The degree of perceived success of the new product developed will explain the variance in the stock
market price of the company.
It is important to remember that there are no preordained variables waiting to be discovered “out there”
that are automatically assigned to be independent or dependent. It is in fact the product of the
researcher’s imagination demonstrated convincingly.
3. Moderating Variables
A moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent effect on the independent variable-dependent
variable relationship. That is, the presence of a third variable (the moderating variable) modifies the
original relationship between the independent and the dependent variable.
For example, a strong relationship has been observed between the quality of library facilities (X) and the
performance of the students (Y). Although this relationship is supposed to be true generally, it is
nevertheless contingent on the interest and inclination of the students. It means that only those students
who have the interest and inclination to use the library will show improved performance in their studies.
In this relationship interest and inclination is moderating variable i.e. which moderates the strength of
the association between X and Y variables.
4. Intervening Variables
A basic causal relationship requires only independent and dependent variable. A third type of variable,
the intervening variable, appears in more complex causal relationships. It comes between the
independent and dependent variables and shows the link or mechanism between them. Advances in
knowledge depend not only on documenting cause and effect relationship but also on specifying the
mechanisms that account for the causal relation. In a sense, the intervening variable acts as a dependent
variable with respect to independent variable and acts as an independent variable toward the dependent
variable.
A theory of suicide states that married people are less likely to commit suicide than single people. The
assumption is that married people have greater social integration (e.g. feelings of belonging to a group
or family). Hence a major cause of one type of suicide was that people lacked a sense of belonging to
group (family). Thus this theory can be restated as a three-variable relationship: marital status
(independent variable) causes the degree of social integration (intervening variable), which affects
suicide (dependent variable). Specifying the chain of causality makes the linkages in theory clearer and
helps a researcher test complex relationships.
Look at another finding that five-day work week results in higher productivity. What is the process of
moving from the independent variable to the dependent variable? What exactly is that factor which
theoretically affects the observed phenomenon but cannot be seen? Its effects must be inferred from the
effects of independent variable on the dependent variable. In this work-week hypothesis, one might
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view the intervening variable to be the job satisfaction. To rephrase the statement it could be: the
introduction of five-day work week (IV) will increase job satisfaction (IVV), which will lead to higher
productivity (DV).
5. Extraneous Variables
An almost infinite number of extraneous variables (EV) exist that might conceivably affect a given
relationship. Some can be treated as independent or moderating variables, but most must either be
assumed or excluded from the study. Such variables have to be identified by the researcher. In order to
identify the true relationship between the independent and the dependent variable, the effect of the
extraneous variables may have to be controlled. This is necessary if we are conducting an experiment
where the effect of the confounding factors has to be controlled. Confounding factors is another name
used for extraneous variables.
Relationship among Variables
Once the variables relevant to the topic of research have been identified, then the researcher is interested
in the relationship among them. A statement containing the variable is called a proposition. It may
contain one or more than one variable. The proposition having one variable in it may be called as
univariate proposition, those with two variables as bivariate proposition, and then of course multivariate
containing three or more variables. Prior to the formulation of a proposition the researcher has to
develop strong logical arguments which could help in establishing the relationship. For example, age at
marriage and education are the two variables that could lead to a proposition: the higher the education,
the higher the age at marriage. What could be the logic to reach this conclusion? All relationships have
to be explained with strong logical arguments.
If the relationship refers to an observable reality, then the proposition can be put to test, and any testable
proposition is hypothesis.
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Lesson 7
HYPOTHESIS TESTING & CHARACTERISTICS
We have already seen that propositions are statements about variables considered to be true or false. If
the phenomenon under consideration happens to be observable reality then the said statement could be
empirically tested. A proposition that can be verified to determine its reality is a hypothesis. Therefore
one can say that a hypothesis is a verifiable counterpart of a proposition.
A hypothesis may be defined as a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables,
expressed in the form of a testable statement. Relationship is proposed by using a strong logical
argumentation. This logical relationship may be part of theoretical framework of the study.
Let us look at some of the hypotheses:
1. Officers in my organization have higher than average level of commitment (variable).
2. Level of job commitment of the officers is associated with their level of efficiency.
3. Level of job commitment of the officers is positively associated with their level of efficiency.
4. The higher the level of job commitment of the officers the lower their level of absenteeism.
These are testable propositions. First hypothesis contains only one variable. The second one has two
variables which have been shown to be associated with each other but the nature of association has not
been specified (non-directional relationship). In the third hypothesis we have gone a step further where
in addition to the relationship between the two variables, the direction of relationship (positive) has also
been given. In the fourth hypothesis level of efficiency has been replaced with level of absenteeism, the
direction of relationship between the two variables has been specified (which is negative). In the
following discussion you will find these hypotheses being quoted as part of the examples.
Types of Hypotheses
i. Descriptive Hypothesis
Descriptive hypothesis contains only one variable thereby it is also called as univariate hypothesis.
Descriptive hypotheses typically state the existence, size, form, or distribution of some variable.
The first hypothesis contains only one variable. It only shows the distribution of the level of
commitment among the officers of the organization which is higher than average. Such a hypothesis is
an example of a Descriptive Hypothesis.
Researchers usually use research questions rather than descriptive hypothesis. For example a question
can be: What is the level of commitment of the officers in your organization?
ii. Relational Hypothesis
These are the propositions that describe a relationship between two variables. The relationship could be
non-directional or directional, positive or negative, causal or simply correlational.
While stating the relationship between the two variables, if the terms of positive, negative, more than,
or less than are used then such hypotheses are directional because the direction of the relationship
between the variables (positive/negative) has been indicated (see hypotheses 3 and 4). These
hypotheses are relational as well as directional. The directional hypothesis is the one in which the
direction of the relationship has been specified.
Non-directional hypothesis is the one in which the direction of the association has not been specified.
The relationship may be very strong but whether it is positive or negative has not been postulated (see
hypothesis 2).
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Correlational hypotheses
State merely that the variables occur together in some specified manner without implying that one
causes the other. Such weak claims are often made when we believe that there are more basic causal
forces that affect both variables. For example:
Level of job commitment of the officers is positively associated with their level of efficiency.
Here we do not make any claim that one variable causes the other to change. That will be possible only
if we have control on all other factors that could influence our dependent variable.
Explanatory (causal) hypotheses
Imply the existence of, or a change in, one variable causes or leads to a change in the other variable.
This brings in the notions of independent and the dependent variables. Cause means to “help make
happen.” So the independent variable may not be the sole reason for the existence of, or change in the
dependent variable. The researcher may have to identify the other possible causes, and control their
effect in case the causal effect of independent variable has to be determined on the dependent variable.
This may be possible in an experimental design of research.
Different ways to state hypotheses
• Hi motivation causes hi efficiency.
• Hi motivation leads to hi efficiency.
• Hi motivation is related to hi efficiency.
• Hi motivation influences hi efficiency.
• Hi motivation is associated with hi efficiency.
• Hi motivation produces hi efficiency.
• Hi motivation results in hi efficiency.
• If hi motivation then hi efficiency.
• The higher the motivation, the higher the efficiency
iii. Null Hypothesis
It is used for testing the hypothesis formulated by the researcher. Researchers treat evidence that
supports a hypothesis differently from the evidence that opposes it. They give negative evidence more
importance than to the positive one. It is because the negative evidence tarnishes the hypothesis. It
shows that the predictions made by the hypothesis are wrong. The null hypothesis simply states that
there is no relationship between the variables or the relationship between the variables is “zero.” That is
how symbolically null hypothesis is denoted as “H0”. For example:
H0 = There is no relationship between the level of job commitment and the level of efficiency. Or
H0 = The relationship between level of job commitment and the level of efficiency is zero. Or
The two variables are independent of each other.
It does not take into consideration the direction of association (i.e. H0 is non directional), which may be
a second step in testing the hypothesis. First we look whether or not there is an association then we go
for the direction of association and the strength of association. Experts recommend that we test our
hypothesis indirectly by testing the null hypothesis. In case we have any credibility in our hypothesis
then the research data should reject the null hypothesis. Rejection of the null hypothesis leads to the
acceptance of the alternative hypothesis.
iv. Alternative Hypothesis
The alternative (to the null) hypothesis simply states that there is a relationship between the variables
under study. In our example it could be: there is a relationship between the level of job commitment and
the level of efficiency. Not only there is an association between the two variables under study but also
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the relationship is perfect which is indicated by the number “1”. Thereby the alternative hypothesis is
symbolically denoted as “H1”. It can be written like this:
H1: There is a relationship between the level of job commitment of the officers and their level of
efficiency.
v. Research Hypothesis
Research hypothesis is the actual hypothesis formulated by the researcher which may also suggest the
nature of relationship i.e. the direction of relationship. In our example it could be:
Level of job commitment of the officers is positively associated with their level of efficiency.
The Role of the Hypothesis
In research, a hypothesis serves several important functions:
1. It guides the direction of the study: Quite frequently one comes across a situation when the
researcher tries to collect all possible information on which he could lay his hands on. Later on
he may find that only part of it he could utilize. Hence there was an unnecessary use of
resources on trivial concerns. In such a situation, hypothesis limits what shall be studied and
what shall not be.
2. It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not: Who shall be studied (married
couples), in what context they shall be studied (their consumer decision making), and what shall
be studied (their individual perceptions of their roles).
3. It suggests which form of research design is likely to be the most appropriate: Depending
upon the type of hypothesis a decision is made about the relative appropriateness of different
research designs for the study under consideration. The design could be a survey design,
experimental design, content analysis, case study, participation observation study, and/or Focus
Group Discussions.
4. It provides a framework for organizing the
conclusions of the findings: The
Characteristics of a Testable Hypothesis
• Hypothesis must be conceptually clear. The concepts used in the hypothesis should be clearly
defined, operationally if possible. Such definitions should be commonly accepted and easily
communicable among the research scholars.
• Hypothesis should have empirical referents. The variables contained in the hypothesis should
be empirical realities. In case these are not empirical realities then it will not be possible to
make the observations. Being handicapped by the data collection, it may not be possible to test
the hypothesis. Watch for words like ought, should, bad.
• Hypothesis must be specific. The hypothesis should not only be specific to a place and
situation but also these should be narrowed down with respect to its operation. Let there be no
global use of concepts whereby the researcher is using such a broad concept which may all
inclusive and may not be able to tell anything. For example somebody may try to propose the
relationship between urbanization and family size. Yes urbanization influences in declining the
size of families. But urbanization is such comprehensive variable which hide the operation of so
many other factor which emerge as part of the urbanization process. These factors could be the
rise in education levels, women’s levels of education, women empowerment, emergence of dual
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earner families, decline in patriarchy, accessibility to health services, role of mass media, and
could be more. Therefore the global use of the word ‘urbanization’ may not tell much. Hence it
is suggested to that the hypothesis should be specific.
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• Hypothesis should be related to available techniques of research. Hypothesis may have
empirical reality; still we are looking for tools and techniques that could be used for the
collection of data. If the techniques are not there then the researcher is handicapped. Therefore,
either the techniques are already available or the researcher is in a position to develop suitable
techniques for the study.
• Hypothesis should be related to a body of theory. Hypothesis has to be supported by
theoretical argumentation. For this purpose the research may develop his/her theoretical
framework which could help in the generation of relevant hypothesis. For the development of a
framework the researcher shall depend on the existing body of knowledge. In such an effort a
connection between the study in hand and the existing body of knowledge can be established.
That is how the study could benefit from the existing knowledge and later on through testing the
hypothesis could contribute to the reservoir of knowledge.
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Lesson 8
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A literature review is based on the assumption that knowledge accumulates and that we learn from and
build on what others have done. Scientific research is a collective effort of many researchers who share
their results with one another and who pursue knowledge as a community.
Today’s studies build on those of yesterday. Researchers read studies to compare, replicate, or criticize
them for weaknesses.
Goals of a Literature Review
Reviews vary in scope and depth. Different kinds of reviews are stronger at fulfilling different goals of
review. The goals of review are:
1. To demonstrate a familiarity with a body of knowledge and establish credibility. A review tells
the reader that the researcher knows the research in an area and knows the major issues. A good
review increases a reader’s confidence in the researcher’s professional competence, ability, and
background.
2. To know the path of prior research and how a current research project is linked to it. A review
outlines the direction, ability, and background of research on a question and shows the
development of knowledge. A good review places a research project in a context and
demonstrates its relevance by making connections to a body of knowledge.
3. To integrate and summarize what is known in an area. A review pulls together and synthesizes
different results. A good review points out areas where prior studies agree, where they
disagree, and where major questions remain. It collects what is known to a point in time and
indicates the direction for future research. No reinventing the wheel. No wastage of effort.
4. To learn from others and stimulate new ideas. A review tells what others have found so that a
researcher can benefit from the efforts of others. A good review identifies blind alleys and
suggests hypotheses for replication. It divulges procedures, techniques, and research designs
worth copying so that a researcher can better focus hypotheses and gain new insights.
5. Identification of variables. Important variables that are likely to influence the problem situation
are not left out of the study.
6. Helps in developing theoretical framework.
7. Helps in developing theoretical framework.
Types of Reviews
When beginning a review, researcher may decide on a topic or field of knowledge to examine, how
much depth to go into, and the kind of review to conduct. There are six types of review:
1. Self-study reviews increase the reader’s confidence. A review that only demonstrates
familiarity with an area is rarely published but it often is part of an educational program. In
addition to giving others confidence in a reviewer’s command of field, it has the side benefit of
building the reviewer’s self confidence.
2. Context reviews place a specific project in the big picture. One of the goals of review is
creating a link to a developing body of knowledge. This is a background or context review. It
introduces the rest of a research and establishes the significance and relevance of a research
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question. It tells the reader how a project fits into the big picture and its implications for a field
of knowledge. The review can summarize how the current research continues a developing line
of thought, or it can point to a question or unresolved conflict in prior research to be addressed.
3. Historical review traces the development of an issue over time. It traces the development of an
idea or shows how a particular issue or theory has evolved over time. Researchers conduct
historical review only on the most important ideas in a field.
4. Theoretical reviews compare how different theories address an issue. It present different
theories that purport to explain the same thing, then evaluates how well each accounts for
findings. In addition to examining the consistency of predictions with findings, a theoretical
review may compare theories for the soundness of their assumptions, logical consistency, and
scope of explanation. Researchers also use it to integrate two theories or extend a theory to new
issues. It sometimes forms a hybrid – the historical theoretical review.
5. Integrative review summarizes what is known at a point in time. It presents the current state of
knowledge and pulls together disparate research reports in a fast growing area of knowledge.
6. Methodological reviews point out how methodology varies by study. In it researcher evaluates
the methodological strength of past studies. It describes conflicting results and shows how
different research designs, samples, measures, and so on account for different results.
Where to find the Research Literature
• Computer: on line systems.
• Scholarly journals.
• Books – containing reports of original research, or collection of research articles. READERS or
Book of Readings.
• Dissertations.
• Government documents.
• Policy reports and presented papers.
• Bibliographic indexes.
Referencing Electronic Sources:
• Ahmad, B. (2005) Technology and immediacy of information. [on line]
Available http://www.bnet.act.com
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Lesson 9
CONDUCTING A SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW
Define and refine a topic
Prior to the review of literature have a good idea of the topic of your interest. Although, the new
thoughts emerging out of the review of literature may help in refocusing the topic, still the researcher
needs to have some clear research question that could guide him/her in the pursuit of relevant material.
Therefore begin a literature review with a clearly defined, well focused research question and a plan. A
good review topic should be as focused as a research question. For example “crime” as such may be too
broad a topic. A more focus may be a specific “type of crime” or “economic inequality and crime
rates.” Often a researcher will not finalize a specific research question for a study until he or she has
reviewed the literature. The review helps bring greater focus to the research question.
Design a search
The researcher needs to decide on the type of review, its extensiveness and the types of material to
include. The key is to be careful, systematic, and organized. Set parameters on your search; how much
time you will devote to it, how far back in time you will look, the maximum number of research reports
you will examine, how many libraries you will visit, and so forth.
Also decide how to record the bibliographic citations for each reference. May be begin a file folder or
computer file in which you can place possible sources and ideas for new sources.
Locate research reports
Locating research reports depends on the type of report or “outlet” of research being searched. Use
multiple search strategies in order to counteract the limitations of single search method.
Articles in Scholarly Journals. Most social and behavioral research is likely published in scholarly
journals. These journals are thee vehicles of communication in science. There are dozens of journal,
many going back decades, each containing many articles. Locating the relevant articles is formidable
task.
Many academic fields have “abstracts” or “indexes” for the scholarly literature. Find them in reference
section of the library. (Many available on compute as well). Such indexes and abstracts are published
regularly.
Another resource for locating articles is the computerized literature search. Researchers organize
computerized searches in several ways – by author, by article title, by subject, or by keyword. A
keyword is an important term for a topic that is likely to be found in a title. You will want to use six to
eight keywords in most computer based searches and consider several synonyms.
Scholarly Books. Finding scholarly books on a subject can be difficult. The subject topics of a library
catalog systems are usually incomplete and too broad to be useful. A person has to be well conversant
with the library cataloging system.
Dissertations. A publication called Dissertation Abstract International lists most dissertations. It
organizes dissertations by broad subject category, author, and date.
Government Documents. The “government documents” sections of libraries contain specialized lists of
government documents.
Policy Reports and Presented Papers. The most difficult sources to locate are policy reports and
presented papers. They are listed in some bibliographies of published studies; some are listed in the
abstracts or indexes.
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What to Record
After you locate a source, you should write down all details of the reference (full names of the authors,
titles, volumes, issue, pages)
Write the Review
A literature review requires planning and good, clear writing, which requires lot of rewriting. Keep
your purposes in mind when you write, and communicate clearly and effectively.
To prepare a good review, read articles and other literature critically. Skepticism is the norm of science.
It means that you should not accept what is written simply on the basis of authority of its having been
published. Question what you read, and evaluate it.
Critically reading research reports requires skills and take time and practice to develop. When reading
an article, read carefully to see whether the introduction and title really fit with the rest of the article.
Sometimes, titles, abstracts, or the introduction are misleading. They may not fully explain the research
project’s method and results.
The most critical areas of an article to read are the methods and results sections. Few studies are
perfect. Researchers do not always describe the methods they used as fully as they should. Some times
the results presented in tables or charts do not match what the researcher says. Some points may be over
emphasized and others ignored. Check the conclusions, theses may not be consistent with the results.
What does a good review look like?
The author should communicate a review’s purpose to the reader by its organization. The wrong way to
write a review is to list a series of research reports with a summary of the findings of each. This fails to
communicate a sense of purpose. It reads as a set of notes strung together. Perhaps the reviewer got
sloppy and skipped over the important organizing step in writing the review.
The right way to write a review is to organize common findings or arguments together. A well accepted
approach is to address the most important ideas first, to logically link statements or findings, and to note
discrepancies or weaknesses in the present.
The writing
process Your
audience:
Professional writers say: Always know for whom are you writing. This is because communication is
more effective when it is tailored to a specific audience. You should write research report differently
depending on whether thee primary audience is the instructor, students, professional colleagues,
practitioners, or the general public. It goes without saying that the writing should be clear, accurate, and
organized.
Instructors assign reports for different reasons and may place requirements on how it is written. In
general, instructors want to see writing an organization that reflect clear, logical thinking. Student
reports should demonstrate a solid grasp of substantive and methodological concepts. A good way to do
this is to use technical terms explicitly when appropriate: they should not be use excessively and
incorrectly.
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Lesson 10
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A theoretical framework is conceptual model of how one theorizes or makes logical sense of the
relationships among several factors that have been identified as important to the problem under study.
These factors which may also be called as variables may have been identified through such processes as
interviews with informants, observations, and literature survey. The theoretical framework discusses the
interrelationships among the variables that are considered to be integral to the dynamics of the situation
being investigated. Developing such a conceptual framework helps us to postulate or hypothesize and
test certain relationships and thus improve our understanding of the dynamics of situation.
From the theoretical framework, then, testable hypotheses can be developed to examine whether theory
formulated is valid or not. The hypothesized relationships can thereafter be tested through appropriate
statistical analysis.
Hence the entire research rests on the basis of the theoretical framework. Even if the testable
hypotheses not necessarily generated, developing a good theoretical framework is central to examining
the problem under investigation.
There is a relationship between the literature survey and the theoretical framework whereby the former
provides a solid foundation for developing the latter. Literature survey helps in the identification of the
relevant variables, as determined by the previous researches. This in addition to other logical
connections that can be conceptualized forms the basis for the theoretical model. The theoretical
framework elaborates the relationships among the variables, explains the theory underlying these
relations, and describes the nature and direction of the relationships. Just as the literature survey sets the
stage for a good theoretical framework, this in turn provides the logical base for developing useable
hypotheses.
From the preceding discussion it can be concluded that a theoretical framework is none other than
identifying the network of relationships among the variables considered important to the study of any
given problem situation. Therefore, the theoretical framework offers the conceptual foundation for
constructing the edifice of research that is to taken in hand.
Specifically a theoretical framework:
• Elaborates the relationship among the variables.
• Explains the logic underlying these relationships.
• Describes the nature, and direction of the relationships.
In the review of literature it is possible that you may come across a number of theories readily available
for adoption as theoretical framework for the study under consideration. Theories are supposed to be
generic whereby they could be applicable to different situations. Some concepts borrowed from such
theories may have to be replaced with arguments, logic explicated, and the framework may be readily
available. It is also possible that the researcher may combine more than one existing theory and come
up with an entirely new framework, and in the process may develop new concepts as well.
However, in the absence of the ready made conceptual framework the researcher may venture to
develop his/her own framework. Though, the researcher has to depend a lot on the existing body of
literature for the identification of variables as well as for developing a rigorous logical argumentation
for the interrelationships among different variables.
Whether the researcher uses a ready-made theoretical framework or explicates an entirely new one,
there are some essential features that have to be taken into consideration. These features may be called
as components of a theoretical framework.
The Components of the Theoretical Framework
A good theoretical framework identifies and labels the important variables in the situation that are
relevant to the problem identified. It logically describes the interconnections among these variables.
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The relationships among the independent variables, the dependent variable(s), and if applicable, the
moderating and intervening variables are elaborated.
The elaboration of the variables in the theoretical framework addresses the issues of why or how we
expect certain relationships to exist, and the nature and direction of the relationships among the
variables of interest. At the end, the whole discussion can be portrayed in a schematic diagram. There
are six basic features that should be incorporated in any theoretical framework. These features are:
1. Make an inventory of variables: For developing a framework it appears essential to identify
the factors relevant to the problem under study. These factors are the empirical realities which
can be named at some abstract level called concepts. The concepts taking more than one value
are the variables. In other words the researcher makes an inventory of relevant variables. The
variables considered relevant to the study should be clearly identified and labeled in the
discussion.
2. Specify the direction of relationship: If the nature and direction of relationship can be
theorized on the basis of the findings of previous research, then there should be an indication in
the discussion as to whether the relationship should be positive or negative.
3. Give a clear explanation of why we should expect the proposed relationships to exist.
There should be clear explanation of why we would expect these relationships to exist. The
arguments could be drawn from the previous research findings. The discussions should state
how two or more variables are related to one another. This should be done for the important
relationships that are theorized to exist among the variables. It is essential to theorize logical
relationship between different variables.
4. Make an inventory of propositions: Stipulation of logical relationship between any two
variables means the formulation of a proposition. If such relationships have been proposed
between different variables, it will result in the formulation of a number of propositions. Let us
call such a collection of propositions as an inventory of propositions. Each proposition is
backed up by strong theoretical argumentation.
5. Arrange these propositions in a sequential order: one proposition generates the next
proposition, which generates the next following proposition, which in turn generates the next
following proposition, and so on. This is an axiomatic way of the derivation of propositions.
Resultantly it will provide us a sequentially arranged set of propositions which are interlinked
and interlocked with each other. Theory, if you remember, is an interrelated set of propositions.
Therefore, the present interrelated set of propositions relevant to a particular problem is in fact a
theoretical framework explaining the pathways of logical relationships between different
variables.
6. Schematic diagram of the theoretical model be given: A schematic diagram of the
theoretical framework should be given so that the reader can see and easily comprehend the
theorized relationships.
Example:
Research Question: Why middle class families decline in their size?
By following the guidelines discussed earlier let us develop a theoretical framework.
1. Inventory of variables: Education levels of the couples, age at marriage, working women,
rationalism, exposure to mass media of communication, accessibility to health services,
practicing of family planning practices, aspirations about the education of children, shift to
nuclear families, mobility orientation.
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2. Specify the direction of relationship: Higher the education higher the age at marriage. Higher
the education of women greater the chances of their being career women. Higher the education
more the rationalism. Higher the education more selective the exposure to mass media of
communication. Higher the education more the accessibility to health services. Higher the
education more the practicing of family planning practices. Higher the education of the parents
the higher their aspirations about the education of their children. Higher the education of the
couple greater thee chances of shifting to nuclear families. Higher the education of the couples
the higher their mobility orientation.
3. Give a clear explanation of why we should expect the proposed relationships to exist. For
example higher the education higher the age at marriage. One could build up the argument like
this: For purposes of getting high levels of education the youngsters spend about 16 years of
their life in educational institutions. Let us say they complete their education at the age of 22
years. After completing education they spend 2-3 years for establishing themselves in their
careers. During this period continue deferring their marriage. By the time they decide about
their marriage they are about 25 years. Compare this age at marriage with the age at marriage
of 16 years. Obviously with this higher age at marriage there is a reduction in the reproductive
period of women. Similarly we can develop logic in support of other proposed relationships.
4. Make an inventory of propositions. The proposed relationships under item 2 about could be
the examples of propositions.
5. Arrange these propositions in a sequential order. These propositions can be arranged
sequentionally.
6. Schematic diagram of the
theoretical model be given
Voluntary Job Turnover:
• Inventory of variables:
• Equity of pay, job complexity, participation of decision making, job satisfaction, job
performance, labor market conditions, number of organization, personal characteristics,
expectation of finding an alternatives, intentions to quit, job turnover.
• Apply all the components of theoretical framework
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Lesson 11
PROBLEM DEFINITION AND RESEARCH PROPOSAL
The research process consists of a number of steps. The first step in any research is selecting the topic,
which could start from the broad area of interest. There is no set formula for the identification of a topic
of research. The best guide is to conduct research on something that interest you. Nevertheless, there
could be a variety of sources like: personal experiences, emerging curiosities from the issues being
reported in the mass media, developments in the knowledge, solving problems (relating to an
organization, a family, education, and economy), and “hot” issues pertaining to every day life.
Broad area of interest could be ‘labor unions.’ As one could see from the literature, there is a large
number of books and perhaps thousands of articles covering various aspects of labor unions. These
articles and books have been written by researchers hailing from different subject specialties and using
variety of perspectives. Therefore the researcher should narrow down the topic to some specific aspect
of labor unions. For example, to what extent do the labor unions protect the rights of female workers?
Techniques for Narrowing a Topic into a Research Question
In order to narrow down the focus of research, try to get the background information from different
sources. For example:
1. Examine the literature.
Published articles are an excellent source of ideas for research questions. They are usually at an
appropriate level of specificity and suggest research questions that focus on the following:
a. Explore unexpected findings discovered in previous research.
b. Follow suggestions an author gives for future research at the end of an article.
c. Extend an existing explanation or theory to a new topic or setting.
d. Challenge findings or attempt to refute a relationship.
e. Specify the intervening process and consider linking relations.
2. Talk over ideas with others.
a. Ask people who are knowledgeable about the topic for questions about it that they have
thought of.
b. Seek out those who hold opinions that differ from yours on the topic and discuss
possible research questions with them.
3. Apply to a specific context.
a. Focus the topic onto a specific historical period or time period.
b. Narrow the topic to a specific society or geographic unit.
c. Consider which subgroups or categories of people/units are involved and whether there
are differences among them.
4. Define the aim or desired outcome of the study.
a. Will the research question be for an exploratory, explanatory, or descriptive study.
b. Will the study involve applied or basic research?
From the Research Question to Hypotheses
Tentative answers to the research question help in the identification of variables that could be used as
explanatory factors for building up the argumentation in the development of propositions relevant to the
topic. In our example the factors may be the prospects of membership of female workers of labor
unions, actual membership, support of their men folk for membership, participation in the general body
meetings, membership of the executive body of labor union, and so on. These very propositions
become the basis of testable hypotheses. Similarly, the inventory of the propositions is helpful in
developing the theoretical framework for the research project.
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Problem Definition
After the interviews and the literature review, the researcher is in a position to narrow down the problem
from its original broad base and define the issues of concern more clearly. It is critical that the focus of
further research be unambiguously identified and defined. Problem definition or problem statement is a
clear, precise, and succinct statement of the question or issue that is to be investigated with the goal of
finding an answer or solution. For example the problem could pertain to (1) existing business problems
where the manager is looking for a solution,(2) situation that may not pose any current problems but
which the manager feels have scope for improvement, (3) areas where some conceptual clarity is needed
for better theory building, or (4) situations in which a researcher is trying to answer a research question
empirically because of interest in the topic.
Sponsored Researches
So far we have been discussing research project primarily from the perspective that a researcher is likely
to carry the study on his/her own initiative. Although such an initiator can be a business manager or
Organizational Management trying to arrest some of the issues in the organization, yet the actual
researcher may be a hired consultant. In such a situation the researcher has to ascertain the decision
maker’s objectives. There might simply be some symptoms, and just like the iceberg principle, the
dangerous part of many business problems is neither visible to nor understood by business managers.
These symptoms are the management dilemmas which have to be translated into management question
and then into research question(s). The management may hire the services of research specialists to do
this assignment. As a result the management dilemmas get identified and delineated in the Terms of
Reference, and consultants may be engaged to carry out the study. In such situations many of the steps
(review of literature, theoretical framework, and hypotheses) that have been discussed earlier may be
skipped. Certainly the management takes the research decisions keeping in view the urgency of the
study, timing of the study, availability of the information, and more importantly the cost benefit
equation of the study.
The Research Proposal
A research proposal is a document that presents a plan for a project to reviewers foe evaluation. It can
be a supervised project submitted to instructors as part of an educational degree (e.g. a Master’s thesis
or a Ph.D. dissertation) or it can be a research project proposed to a funding agency. Its purpose is to
convince reviewers that the researcher is capable of successfully conducting the proposed research
project. Reviewers have more confidence that a planned project will be successfully completed if the
proposal is well written and organized, and carefully planned.
The proposal is just like a research report, but it is written before the research project begins. A
proposal describes the research problem and its importance, and gives a detailed account of the methods
that will be used and why they are appropriate.
A proposal for quantitative research has most of the parts of a research report: a title, an abstract, a
problem statement, a literature review, a method or design section, and a bibliography. It lacks results,
discussion, and conclusions section. The proposal has a plan for data collection and analysis. It
frequently includes a schedule of the steps to be undertaken and an estimate of the time required for
each step.
For funded projects the researchers need to show a track record of past success in the proposal,
especially if they are the going to be the in charge of the project. Proposals usually include curriculum
vitae, letters of support from other researchers, and record if past research.
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Research Proposal Sections
Introduction
- Background of the study
- Objectives
- Significance
Research Design
- Data collection technique (survey, experiment, qualitative technique)
- Population
- Sample
- Tool of data collection
- Data Gathering
- Data processing and analysis
Report
writing
Budget
Time Schedule
Team of Researchers
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Lesson 12
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Research task is usually treated as a sequential process involving several clearly defined steps. No one
claims that research requires completion of each step before going to the next. Recycling,
circumventing, and skipping occur. Some steps are begun out of sequence, some are carried out
simultaneously, and some may be omitted. Despite these variations, the idea of sequence is useful for
developing a project and for keeping thee project orderly as it unfolds.
Various approaches suggest somewhat different steps – ranging from five steps to eleven steps. The
variation may be due to purposes, and methods used by the researches, though some researchers may
combine some of the steps. Also some writers may portray the same steps in a linear way; others may
put them in a cyclical form. These steps can be:
1. Broad Problem Area
The process begins with a researcher selecting a topic – a general area of study or issue such as divorce,
crime, aging, marketing, or powerful elites. A topic appears to be too broad for conducting research.
The specific issues that need to be researched within the situation may not be identified at this stage.
Such issues might pertain to (1) problem currently existing in an organizational setting that need to be
solved (sexual harassment), (2) areas that a manager believes need to be improved in the organization
(improving the existing policies), (3) a conceptual or theoretical issue that needs to tightened up for
basic researcher or to understand certain phenomenon (conceptual definition of harassment), and (4)
some research questions that a basic researcher wants to answer empirically (impact of harassment on
the performance of the workers).
2. Preliminary Data Collection
This step may be considered as part of the exploratory research. An exploration typically begins with a
search for published data and studies. Such sources can provide secondary data which becomes part of
the background information (about the organization, groups of people, context of the issue). Some
secondary sources of data are statistical bulletins, government publications, information published or
unpublished, case studies, online data, web sites, and the Internet. In addition, the researchers often
seek out people who are well informed on the topic, especially those who have clearly stated positions
on controversial aspects of the problem. Such persons can be the professional researchers, or the
informants to whom the issues relate. In certain situations it may be appropriate to have some focus
group discussions with the relevant people. Such discussions help in the identification of variables and
having clarification of the issue
3. Problem Definition
After having discussions with the professionals as well as with the persons to whom the issue relates,
and the review of literature, the researcher is in a position to narrow down from its original broad base
and define the issue clearly. Translate the broad issue into a research question. As part of the applied
research convert the management dilemma into a management question, and then on to research
question that fits the need to resolve the dilemma. The symptoms of a problem might help tracing the
real problem. For example a productivity decline of workers may be an issue. The management may
have tried to solve it by the provision of incentive but did not work. The researcher may have to dig
deep and find the possible factors like the morale and motivation of the workers having some other
antecedents. There could be similar other broad issues which have to be narrowed down to research
questions like:
1. To what extent has the new advertising campaign been successful in creating the high quality,
consumer-centered corporate image that it was intended to produce?
2. Has the new packaging affected the sale of the products?
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3. Will the day care centers affect the productivity of female workers?
4. Why the divorce rate is on the increase in Pakistan?
5. Why the family in Pakistan is changing?
6. What could be the impact of changing family patterns on the living of senior citizens?
4. Theoretical Framework
Consultations with the informants and professionals, and the review of literature should have helped in
the identification of different factors that are considered to be relevant to the topic. The researcher has
to make logical relationship among several factors identified earlier. This will help in the delineation of
the theoretical framework. The theoretical framework discusses the interrelationships among the
variables that are deemed to be integral to the dynamics of the situation being investigated. Developing
such a conceptual framework helps to postulate or hypothesize and test certain relationships.
We have already discussed the components of a theoretical framework.
5. Generation of Hypotheses
Once we have identified the important variables relevant to an issue and established the logical
reasoning in the theoretical framework, we are in a position to test whether the relationships that have
been theorized do in fact hold true. By testing these relationships scientifically, we are in a position to
obtain reliable information to determine the relationship among the variables. The results of these tests
offer us part of the answers to the formulated research questions, whether these relate basic research or
to applied research.
6. Research Design
Research design is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing the
needed information. It is a framework or the blueprint that plans the action for research project. The
objectives of the study determined during the early stages of the research are included in thee design to
ensure that the information collected is appropriate for solving the problem. The researcher must
specify the sources of information, and the research method or technique (survey or experiment, for
example) to be followed in thee study.
Broadly there are six basic research methods for descriptive and causal research: surveys, experiments,
observation, communication analysis (content analysis), case study, focus group discussion. Use of
secondary data may be another method where the data may have been collected by using any of the six
basic methods listed earlier. The objectives of the research, the available data sources thee urgency of
the decision, and the cost of obtaining the data will determine the method to be is chosen.
Surveys: The most common method of generating primary data is through surveys. Survey is a
research technique in which information is gathered from a sample of people using a questionnaire. The
task of writing a list of questions and designing the exact format of the printed or written questionnaire
is an essential aspect of the development of survey research design.
Research investigators may choose to contact the respondents in person, by telephone, by mail, or on the
internet. Each of these techniques has advantages and disadvantages. The researcher’s task is to choose
the most appropriate one for collecting the information needed.
Experiments: Experiments hold the greatest potential for establishing cause-and-effect relationships.
The use of experimentation allows investigation of changes in one variable, such as productivity, while
manipulating one or more variables, perhaps social rewards or monetary rewards, under controlled
conditions. Ideally, experimental control provides a basis for isolating causal factors, because outside
(or exogenous) influences do not come into play.
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An experiment controls conditions so that one or more variables can be manipulated in order to test a
hypothesis. In the laboratory experiments, compared with the field experiment, it is possible to create
controlled conditions for the manipulation of one or more variables and see its effect on the dependent
variable by holding the extraneous factors constant.
Observation techniques: Observation can be non participant or participant. In many situations the
objective of a research project is merely to record what can be observed – for example the number of
automobiles that pass the proposed site for a gas station. This can be mechanically recorded or observed
by any person. This is an unobtrusive study without a respondent’s direct participation. In participant
observation studies, the researcher takes part in the day to day activities, interviews them, and makes
observations. Such a study generates qualitative data and lasts for a long duration.
Communication analysis: It is also called content analysis which means gathering and analyzing thee
content of the text. The content refers to words, meanings, pictures, symbols, ideas, themes, or any
message that can be communicated. The text is anything written, visual, or spoken that serves as a
medium of communication. It includes books, newspapers, advertisements, speeches, official
documents, films or videotapes, photographs, articles of clothing, or works of art.
Case study: It is an in-depth analysis of a unit which could be an individual person, a couple, a group,
or an organization. It is more like a clinical analysis in retrospect; starting from the effect and tracing
the reasons back in time. The researcher takes the history of the situation and makes use of any other
relevant information about the case to identify the factors leading to the present situation.
Focus group discussions: It is a discussion of an issue by 6-12 persons with a moderator for 1-2 hours.
The issue can be a public concern, a product, a television program, a political candidate, or a policy.
Focus groups are useful in exploratory research or to generate new ideas for hypotheses, and the
interpenetration of results. It produces qualitative information which may compliment the quantitative
data.
Researchers try to evaluate different research designs and select the most appropriate one that helps in
getting the relevant information. There is no one best research design for all situations.
7. Data Collection, Data Processing, and Analysis
Data collection is integral part of the research design, though we are dealing it separately. Data
collection is determined by the research technique selected for the project. Data can be collected in a
variety of ways, in different settings – field or lab – and from different sources. It could include
interviews – face to face interviews, telephone interviews, computer-assisted interviews, and interviews
through electronic media; questionnaires that either personally administered, sent through mail, or
electronically administered; observation of individuals and events which could be participant or non
participant.
Once the fieldwork has been completed, the data must be converted into a format that will answer the
research questions and or help testing the hypotheses. Data processing generally begins with the editing
and coding of thee data. Editing involves checking the data collection forms for omissions, legibility,
and consistency in classification. The editing process corrects problems such as interviewer errors prior
to the data are transferred to a computer. Coding may be the assigning of numbers or symbols before it
goes to the computer. The computer can help in making tables and the application of different statistics.
Analysis is the application of reasoning to understand and interpret the data that have been collected.
The appropriate analytical technique is to be determined by the research design, and the nature of the
data collected.
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8. Testing the Hypotheses; Answering the Research
Questions
The analysis and interpretation of the data shall be the means to testing the formulated hypotheses as
well as finding answers to the research questions. In case of applied research, the research should be
helpful in finding solutions to the problems of the organization or society. Making recommendations
may also be part of this process.
9. Report Writing
The research report should communicate the research findings effectively. All too often the report is a
complicated statement of the study’s technical aspects and sophisticated research methods. If the study
has been conducted for a business management, often the management is not interested in detailed
reporting of the research design and statistical findings but wants only the summary of the findings.
Research is only as good as the applications made of it. Nevertheless, the research report becomes a
historical document, a record that may be referred to in later studies. In case of research for academic
purposes the research findings become part of the body of knowledge, and the research may producing
research papers for publication in professional journals.
The report has to be presented in the format as it may have been part of thee terms of reference if it is a
sponsored study. In case of a dissertation the Universities have some standardized styles which have to
be followed. Similarly the research papers have to be prepared in accordance with the format specified
by the professional journals.
The graphic presentation of the research process may be like this:
The Research Process
| PROBLEM |
| PRELIMINARY |
OBSERVATION
Broad area of
research interest
identified
THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
Variables clearly
identified and labeled
Generation of
hypothesis SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH
DESIGN
DATA
COLLECTION
ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION
D
| DEDUCTION |
| Yes Report |
| Managerial |
| Decision |
| No |
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Lesson 13
ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH
Ethics are norms or standards of behavior that guide moral choices about our behavior and our
relationships with others. The goal of ethics in research is to ensure that no one is harmed or suffers
adverse consequences from research activities. This objective is usually achieved. However, unethical
activities are pervasive and include violating nondisclosure agreements, breaking respondent
confidentiality, misrepresenting results, deceiving people, invoicing irregularities, avoiding legal
liability, and more.
As discussed earlier, ethical questions are philosophical questions. There is no general agreement
among philosophers about the answers to such questions. However the rights and obligations of
individuals are generally dictated by the norms of society. Societal norms are codes of behavior
adopted by a group; they suggest what a member of a group ought to do under given circumstances.
Nevertheless, with changing situations people continue differing with each other whereby societal
norms may undergo changes. Codes and regulations guide researchers and sponsors. Review boards
and peer groups help researchers examine their research proposals for ethical dilemmas. Responsible
researchers anticipate ethical dilemmas and attempt to adjust the design, procedures, and protocols
during the planning process rather than treating them as afterthought. Ethical research requires personal
integrity from the researcher, the project manager, and the research sponsor.
Codes of ethic applicable at
each stage of the research Goal
To ensure that no one is harmed or suffers adverse consequences from research activities
Unethical activities
• Violating nondisclosure agreements.
• Breaking respondent confidentiality.
• Misrepresenting results.
• Deceiving people.
• Invoicing irregularities.
• Avoiding legal liability.
Ethical Issues
• Remain to be issues.
• Local norms suggest what ought to be done under the given circumstances.
• Codes of ethics developed to guide researchers and sponsors.
• Review Boards and peer groups help sorting out ethical dilemmas.
Anticipate ethical dilemmas
• Adjust the design, procedures, and protocols accordingly.
• Research ethics require personal integrity of the researcher, the project manager, and research
sponsor.
Parties in Research
• Mostly three parties:
• The researcher
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• The sponsoring client (user)
• The respondent (subject)
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Obligations Obligations Obligations
• Interaction requires ethical questions.
• Each party expects certain rights and feels certain obligations.
General Rights and Obligations of Parties Concerned
In most research situations, three parties are involved: the researcher, the sponsoring client (user), and
the respondent (subject). The interaction of each of these parties with one or both of the other two
identifies a series of ethical questions. Consciously or consciously, each party expects certain rights and
feels certain obligations towards the other parties.
Interaction of rights and obligations of parties in research
Subject Researcher Client
Ethical Treatment of Participants
When ethics are discussed in research design, we often think first about protecting the rights of the
participant, respondent, or subject. Whether data are gathered in an experiment, interview, observation,
or survey, the respondent has many rights to be safeguarded. In general the research must be designed
so that a respondent does not suffer physical harm, discomfort, pain, embarrassment, or loss of privacy.
To safeguard against these, the researcher should follow three guidelines;
1. Explain study benefits.
2. Explain respondent rights and protections.
3. Obtain informed consent.
Benefits:
Whenever direct contact is made with a respondent, the researcher should discuss the study’s benefits,
being careful to neither overstate nor understate the benefits. An interviewer should begin an
introduction with his or her name, the name of the research organization, and a brief description of the
purpose and benefit of the research. This puts the respondent at ease, lets them know to whom they are
speaking, and motivates them to answer questions truthfully. In short, knowing why one is being asked
questions improves cooperation through honest disclosure of purpose. Inducements to participate,
financial or otherwise, should not be disproportionate to the task or presented in a fashion that results in
coercion.
Sometimes the actual purpose and benefits of the study or experiment must be concealed from the
respondents to avoid introducing bias. The need for concealing objectives leads directly to the problem
of deception.
Rights Rights Rights
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Lesson 14
ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH (Cont)
Ethics are norms or standards of behavior that guide moral choices about our behavior and our
relationships with others. The goal of ethics in research is to ensure that no one is harmed or suffers
adverse consequences from research activities. This objective is usually achieved. However, unethical
activities are pervasive and include violating nondisclosure agreements, breaking respondent
confidentiality, misrepresenting results, deceiving people, invoicing irregularities, avoiding legal
liability, and more.
Deception: Deception occurs when the respondents are told only part of the truth or when the truth is
fully compromised. Some believe this should never occur. Others suggest two reasons for deception:
(1) to prevent biasing the respondents before the survey or experiment and (2) to protect the
confidentiality of a third party (e.g. the sponsor). Deception should not be used in an attempt to
improve response rates.
The benefits to be gained by deception should be balanced against the risks to the respondents. When
possible, an experiment or interview should be redesigned to reduce the reliance on deception. Use of
deception is inappropriate unless deceptive techniques are justified by the study’s expected scientific,
educational, or applied value and equally effective alternatives that do not use deception are not
feasible. And finally, the respondents must have given their informed consent before participating in
the research.
Informed Consent: Securing informed consent from respondents is a matter of fully disclosing the
procedures of the proposed survey or other research design before requesting permission to proceed
with the study. There are exceptions that argue for a signed consent form. When dealing with children,
it is wise to have a parent or other person with legal standing sign a consent form.
If there is a chance the data could harm the respondent or if the researchers offer any limited protection
of confidentiality, a signed form detailing the types of limits should be obtained. For most business
research, oral consent is sufficient.
In situations where respondents are intentionally or accidentally deceived, they should be debriefed once
the research is complete.
Debriefing:
It involves several activities following the collection of data:
• Explanation of any deception.
• Description of the hypothesis, goal, or purpose of the study.
• Post study sharing of the results.
• Post study follow-up medical or psychological attention.
First, the researcher shares the truth of any deception with the participants and all the reasons for using
deception in the context of the study’s goals. In cases where severe reactions occur, follow-up medical
or psychological attention should be provided to continue to ensure the participants remain unharmed by
the research.
Even when the research does not deceive the respondents, it is a good practice to offer them follow-up
information. This retains the goodwill of the respondent, providing an incentive to participate in future
research projects. For surveys and interviews, respondents can be offered a brief report of the findings.
Usually they would not ask for additional information.
For experiments, all participants should be debriefed in order to put the experiment in context.
Debriefing usually includes a description of the hypothesis being tested and the purpose of the study.
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Participants who were not deceived still benefit from the debriefing session. They will be able to
understand why the experiment was created. The researchers also gain important insight into what the
participants thought about during and after the experiment.
To what extent do debriefing and informed consent reduce the effects of deception? Research suggests
that the majority of the respondents do not resent temporary deception and may have more positive
feelings about the value of the research after debriefing than those who didn’t participate in the study.
Rights to Privacy
All individuals have right to privacy, and researchers must respect that right. The privacy guarantee is
important not only to retain validity of the research but also to protect respondents. The confidentiality
of the survey answers is an important aspect of the respondents’ right to privacy.
Once the guarantee of confidentiality is given, protecting that confidentiality is essential. The
researcher protects the confidentiality in several ways;
• Obtaining signed nondisclosure documents.
• Restricting access to respondent identification.
• Revealing respondent information only with written consent.
• Restricting access to data instruments where the respondent is identified.
• Nondisclosure of data subsets.
Privacy is more than confidentiality. A right to privacy means one has the right to refuse to be
interviewed or to refuse to answer any question in an interview. Potential participants have a right to
privacy in their own homes including not admitting researchers and not answering telephones. To
address these rights, ethical researchers do the following:
• Inform respondents of their right to refuse to answer any questions or participate in the study.
• Obtain permission to interview respondents.
• Schedule field and phone interviews.
• Limit the time required for participation.
• Restrict observation to public behavior only.
The obligation to be truthful: When a subject willingly agrees to participate, it is generally expected
that he or she will provide truthful answers. Honest cooperation is main obligation of the respondent or
the subject.
Ethics and the Sponsor
There are also ethical considerations to keep in mind when dealing with the research client or sponsor
has the right to receive ethically conducted research.
Confidentiality of Sponsor
Some sponsors wish to undertake research without revealing themselves. They have a right to several
types of confidentiality, including sponsor nondisclosure, purpose nondisclosure, and findings
nondisclosure.
Companies have the right to dissociate themselves from sponsorship of a research project. This type of
confidentiality is called sponsorship nondisclosure. Due to sensitive nature of the management
dilemma or the research question, sponsor may hire an outside consulting or research firm to complete
research project. This is often done when a company is testing a new product idea, to avoid potential
consumers from being influenced by company’s current image or industry standing.
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Purpose nondisclosure involves protecting the purpose of the study or its details. A research sponsor
may be testing a new idea that is not yet patented and may not want the competition to know its plans.
It may be investigating employee complaints and may not want to spark union activity. Finally, even if
a sponsor feels no need to hide its identity or the study’s purpose, most sponsors want the research data
and findings to be confidential; at least until the management decision is made. Thus sponsors usually
demand and receive findings nondisclosure between themselves or their researchers and any interested
but unapproved parties.
Right to Quality Research
An important ethical consideration is the sponsor’s right to quality research. This right entails:
• Providing research design appropriate for the research question.
• Maximizing the sponsor’s value for the resources expended.
• Providing data handling and reporting techniques appropriate for the data collected.
Sponsor’s Ethics
Occasionally, research specialists may be asked by the sponsors to participate in unethical behavior.
Compliance by the researcher would be a breach of ethical standards. Some examples to be avoided
are;
• Violating respondent confidentiality.
• Changing data or creating false data to meet the desired objective.
• Changing data presentation or interpretations.
• Interpreting data from a biased perspective.
• Omitting sections of data analysis and conclusions.
• Making recommendations beyond the scope of data collected.
Researchers and Team Members
Another ethical responsibility of researchers is their team’s safety as well as their own. The
responsibility for ethical behavior rests with the researcher who, along with assistants, is charged with
protecting the anonymity of both the sponsor and the respondent.
Safety: It is the researcher’s responsibility to design a project so the safety of all interviewers,
surveyors, experimenters, or observers is protected. Several factors may be important to consider in
ensuring a researcher’s right to safety.
Ethical behavior of Assistants: Researchers should require ethical compliance from team members
just as sponsors expect ethical behavior from researcher. Assistants are expected to carry out the
sampling plan, to interview or observe respondents without bias, and to accurately record all necessary
data.
Protection of Anonymity: Researchers and assistants should protect the confidentiality of the sponsor’s
information and anonymity of the respondents. Each researcher handling data should be required to
sign a confidentiality and nondisclosure statement.
Professional Standards
Various standards of ethics exist for the professional researcher. Many corporations, professional
associations, and universities have code of ethics. These codes of ethic have to be enforced.
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Lesson 15
MEASUREMENT OF CONCEPTS
In everyday usage, measurement occurs when an established yardstick verifies the height, weight, or
another feature of a physical object. How well you like a song, a painting, or the personality of a friend
is also measurement. In a dictionary sense, to measure is to discover the extent, dimensions, quantity, or
capacity of something, especially by comparison with a standard. We measure casually in daily life, but
in research the requirements for measurement are rigorous.
Certain things lend themselves to easy measurement through the use of appropriate instruments, as for
example, physiological phenomena pertaining to human beings such as blood pressure, pulse rates, and
body temperature, as well as certain physical attributes such as height and weight. But when we get into
the realm of people’s subjective feelings, attitudes, ideology, deviance, and perceptions, the
measurement of these factors or variables becomes difficult. Like the natural scientist who invents
indirect measures of the “invisible” objects and forces of the physical world (magnetism – the force that
moves a metal toward the magnet), the social researcher devises measures for difficult- to-observe
aspects of the social world. For example, suppose you heard a principal complain about teacher morale
in a school. Teacher morale is an empirical reality, and we can create some instrument for its
measurement.
Measurement in Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Both qualitative and quantitative researchers use careful, systematic methods to gather high quality data.
Yet, differences in the styles of research and the types of data mean they approach the measurement
process differently. Designing precise ways to measure variables is a vital step in planning a study for
quantitative researchers. Qualitative researchers use wider variety of techniques to measure and create
new measures while collecting data. The two approaches to measurement have three distinctions.
One difference between the two styles involves timing. Quantitative researchers extensively think about
variables and convert them into specific actions during a planning stage that occurs before and separate
from gathering or analyzing data. Measurement for qualitative researchers occurs in the data collection
process, and only a little occurs in a separate, planning stage prior to data gathering.
A second difference involves the data itself. Quantitative researchers want to develop techniques that
can produce quantitative data (i.e. data in the form of numbers). Thus, the researcher moves from
abstract ideas, or variables, to specific data collection techniques to precise numerical information
produced by the techniques. The numerical information is an empirical representation of the abstract
ideas. Data for qualitative researchers sometimes is in the form of numbers; more often it includes
written or spoken word, actions, sounds, symbols, physical objects, or visual images. The qualitative
researcher does not convert all observations into a single, common medium such as numbers. Instead he
or she develops many flexible, ongoing processes to measure that leaves the data in various shapes,
sizes, and forms.
All researchers combine ideas and data to analyze the social world. In both research styles, data are
empirical representation of concepts, and measurement is a process that links data to concepts. A third
difference is how the two styles make such linkages. Quantitative researchers contemplate and reflect
on concepts before they gather data. They construct measurement techniques that bridge concepts and
data. The measurement techniques define what the data will be and are directions for gathering data.
Qualitative researchers also reflect on ideas before data collection, but they develop many, if not most,
of their concepts during data collection activities. Researchers start gathering data and creating ways to
measure based what they encounter. As they gather data, they reflect on the process and develop new
ideas. The ideas give them direction and suggest new ways to measure.
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Here we shall focus on quantitative measurement. Here measurement consists of assigning numbers to
empirical events in compliance with set rules. This definition implies that measurement is a three-part
process:
1. Selecting observable empirical events.
2. Developing a set of mapping rules: a scheme for assigning numbers or symbols to represent
aspects of the event being measured.
3. Applying the mapping rule(s) to each observation of that event.
Assume you are studying people who attend an auto show where all year’s new models are on display.
You are interested in learning the male-to female ratio among attendees. You observe those who enter
the show area. If a person is female, you record an F; if male, an M. Any other symbols such as 0 and 1
may also be used if you know what group the symbol identifies.
Researchers might also want to measure the desirability of the styling of the new Espace van. They
interview a sample of visitors and assign, with a different mapping rule, their opinions to the following
scale:
What is your opinion of the styling of the Espace van?
Very desirable 5 4 3 2 1 Very undesirable
We can assign a weight-age (score) like:
5 if it is very desirable
4 if desirable
3 if neither
2 if undesirable
1 if very undesirable.
All measurement theorists would call such opinion rating scale as a form of measurement.
What is measured?
Variable being studied in research may be classified as objects or as properties. Objects include the
things of ordinary experience, such as tables, people, books, and automobiles. Objects also include
things that are not as concrete, such as genes, attitudes, neutrons, and peer group pressures. Properties
are the characteristics of the objects. A person’s physical properties may be stated in terms of weight,
height, and posture. Psychological properties include attitudes, intelligence, motivation, perceptions,
etc. Social properties include leadership ability, class affiliation, or status. These and many other
properties of an individual can be measured in a research study.
In a literal sense, researchers do not measure either objects or properties. They measure indicants of the
properties or indicants of the properties of the objects. The properties like age, years of experience, and
the number of calls made per week are easier to indicate and there is expected to be lot of agreement.
In contrast, it is not easy to measure properties like “motivation,” “ability to stand stress,” “problemsolving ability,” and “persuasiveness.” Since each property cannot be measured directly, one must infer
its presence or absence by observing some indicant or pointer measurement. When you begin to make
these inferences, there is often disagreement about how to operationalize the indicants.
The preceding discussion suggests two types of variables: one lends itself to objective and precise
measurement; the other is more nebulous and does not lend itself to accurate measurement because of its
subjective nature. However, despite the lack of physical measuring devices to measure the latter type,
there are ways to tapping the subjective feelings and perceptions of individuals. One technique is to
reduce the abstract notions, or concepts such as motivation, involvement, satisfaction, buyer behavior,
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stock market exuberance, and the like, to observable behavior and characteristics. In other words, the
abstract notions are broken down into observable characteristic behavior. Reducing the abstract
concepts to render them measurable in a tangible way is called operationalizing thee concepts.
Parts of the Measurement Process
When a researcher measures, he or she takes a concept, idea, or construct and develops a measure (i.e. a
technique, a process, a procedure) by which he or she can observe the idea empirically. Quantitative
researchers primarily follow a deductive route. To begin with the abstract idea, follow with a
measurement procedure, and end with empirical data that represent the ideas. Qualitative researchers
primarily follow inductive route. They begin with empirical data, follow with abstract ideas, follow
with processes relating with ideas and data, and end with a mixture of ideas and data.
Researchers use two processes: conceptualization and operationalization in measurement.
a. Conceptualization
Conceptualization is the process of taking a construct and refining it by giving it a conceptual or
theoretical definition. A conceptual definition is definition in abstract, theoretical terms. It refers to
other ideas or constructs. There is no magical way to turn a construct into a precise conceptual
definition. It involves thinking carefully, observing directly, consulting with others, reading what others
have said, and trying possible definitions.
A good definition has one clear, explicit, and specific meaning. There is no ambiguity or vagueness in
the concepts (e.g. street gang, morale, motivation, social class, consumer satisfaction). A single
construct can have several definitions, and people may disagree over definitions. Conceptual definitions
are linked to theoretical frameworks and to value positions. For example, a conflict theorist may define
social class as the power and property a group of people in society has or lacks. A structural
functionalist defines it in terms of individuals who share a social status, life-style, or subjective
identification. Although people disagree over definitions, the researcher should always state explicitly
which definition he or she is using.
Before you can measure, you need a concept. You also need to distinguish what you are interested in
from other things. The idea that you first need a construct or concept of what is to be measured simply
makes sense. How can you observe or measure something unless you know what you are looking for?
For example, we want to measure teacher morale. We first define teacher morale. What does the
construct morale mean? As a variable construct, it takes on different values – high versus low or good
versus bad morale. Next we create a measure of this construct. This could take the form of survey
questions, an examination of school records, or observations of teachers. Also we distinguish morale
from other things in the answers to survey questions, school records, or observations.
How can we develop a conceptual definition of teacher morale, or at least a tentative working definition
to get started? Look in the everyday understanding of morale – something vague like “how people feel
about things.” Also look in the dictionary, which gives definitions like “confidence, spirit, zeal,
cheerfulness, esprit de corps, and mental condition towards something.” Look into the review of
literature and see how other researchers have defined this concept. In this effort we collect various
definitions, parts of definitions, and related ideas, whereby we draw the boundaries of the core idea.
We find that most of these definitions say that morale is a spirit, feeling, or mental condition toward
something, or a group feeling. But we are interested in teacher morale. We can ask teachers to specify
as what does this construct mean to them? One strategy is to make a list of examples of high or low
teacher morale. High teacher morale includes saying positive things about the school, not complaining
about extra-work or enjoying being with students. Low morale includes complaining a lot, not
attending school events unless required to, or looking for other jobs.
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Morale involves a feeling toward something else; a person has morale with regard to something. A list
of various “somethings” toward which teachers have feelings (e.g. students, parents, pay, the school
administration, other teachers, the profession of teaching). Are there several kinds of teacher morale or
all these “somethings” aspects of one construct? We have to decide whether morale means a single,
general feeling with different parts or dimensions, or several distinct feelings.
What unit of analysis does our construct apply to: a group or an individual? Is morale a characteristic of
an individual, of a group, or of both?
A researcher must distinguish the construct of interest from related constructs. How is our construct of
teacher morale similar to or different from related concepts? For example, does morale differ from
mood? We decide that mood is more individual and temporary than morale. Morale is a group feeling
that includes positive or negative feelings about the future as well as other beliefs and feelings.
Who is a teacher? We have to decide.
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b. Operationa
lization
MEASUREMENT OF CONCEPTS (CONTINUED)
Lesson 16
Operationalization is the process of linking the conceptual definition to a specific set of measurement
techniques or procedures. It links the language of theory with the language of empirical measures.
Theory is full of abstract concepts, assumptions, relationships, definitions, and causality. Empirical
measures describe how people concretely measure specific variables. They refer to specific operations
or things people use to indicate the presence of a construct that exists in observable reality.
Operationalization is done by looking at the behavioral dimensions, facets, or properties denoted by the
concept. These are then translated into observable elements so as to develop an index of measurement of
the concept. Operationally defining a concept involves a series of steps. Here is an example.
Operational definition: Dimensions and Elements € an
example
Let us try to operationally define job satisfaction, a concept of interest to educators, managers, and
students alike. What behavioral dimensions or facets or characteristics would we expect to find in
people with high job satisfaction? Let us first of all have a conceptual definition of job satisfaction. We
can start it like this:
• Employees’ feelings toward their job.
• Degree of satisfaction that individuals obtain from various roles they play in an organization.
• A pleasurable or positive emotional feeling resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job
experience.
• Employee’s perception of how well the job provides those things (‘some things’) that are
important. These things are the dimensions of job satisfaction.
Dimensions of job satisfaction: For measuring job satisfaction it is appropriate to look at this concept
from different angles relating with work. While employed in an organization the workers might be
looking for many “things.” Each of these things may be considered as a dimension; a person may be
highly satisfied on one dimension and may be least satisfied on the other one. Those things that have
usually been considered important at the place of work can be:
• The work itself.
• Pay/fringe benefits.
• Promotion opportunities.
• Supervision.
• Coworkers.
• Working conditions.
On each dimension the researcher has to develop logical arguments showing how this particular aspect
(thing) relating to a worker’s job is important whereby it has a bearing on his/her job satisfaction.
Elements of job satisfaction: It means breaking each dimension further into actual patterns of behavior
that would be exhibited through the perception of the workers in an organization. Here again the
researcher shall develop logical rationale for using a particular element for measuring a specific
dimension. For example let us look at each dimension and some of the corresponding elements:
- Work itself: Elements€ Opportunities to learn, sense of accomplishment, challenging
work,routine work.
- Pay/fringe benefits: Elements € Pay according to qualifications, comparison with other
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organizations, annual increments, and availability of bonuses, old age benefits, insurance
benefits, and other allowances.
- Promotion opportunities: Elements € Mobility policy, equitable, dead end job.
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- Supervision: Elements€Employee centered employee participation in decisions.
- Coworkers:Elements€Primarygrouprelations,supportiveattitude,levelofcohesiveness.
- Working conditions: Elements€ Lighting arrangements, temperature, cleanliness, building
security, hygienic conditions, first aid facility, availability of canteen, availability of toilet
facilities, availability of place for prayer.
On each element ask question (s), make statements. Look into the scalability of questions. The
responses can be put on a scale indicating from high satisfaction to least satisfaction. In many cases the
responses are put on a five point scale (usually called Likert scale).
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STATEME
NTS:
MEASUREMENT OF CONCEPTS (CONTINUED)
Lesson 17
| No. | Statements | S. Agree | Agree | Undecided | Disagree | S. Disagree |
| 1 | I have a good opportunity for | |||||
| 2 | I feel very comfortable with my co | |||||
| 3 | My pay is adequate to meet my necessary | |||||
| 4 | My work gives me a sense of | |||||
| 5 | My boss is impolite and cold | |||||
| 6 | My job is a dead-end job | |||||
| 7 | The company of my co-workers is boring | |||||
| 8 | Pay at my level is less as compared to | |||||
| 9 | Most of the time I am frustrated with my | |||||
| 10 | My boss praises good work and is | |||||
| 11 | There is a chance of frequent promotions | |||||
| 12 | My co-workers are a source of inspiration | |||||
| 13 | I receive reasonable annual increments | |||||
| 14 | My work is very challenging to me | |||||
| 15 | My boss is adept in his work | |||||
| 16 | We have an unfair promotion policy in | |||||
| 17 | Working style of my co-workers is | |||||
| 18 | The old-age benefits are quite adequate | |||||
| 19 | Most of the time I do routine work | |||||
| 20 | My boss does not delegate powers | |||||
| 21 | Opportunity for promotion is some-what | |||||
| 22 | My co-workers try to take credit of my | |||||
| 23 | My pay is commensurate with my |
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Scales and Indexes
Scales and indexes are often used interchangeably. Social researchers do not use a consistent
nomenclature to distinguish between the two.
A scale is a measure in which a researcher captures the intensity, direction, level, or potency of a
variable construct. It arranges responses or observations on a continuum or in series of categories. A
scale can use a single indicator or multiple indicators.
An index is a measure in which a researcher adds or combines several distinct indicators of a construct
into a single score. The composite scores is often a simple sum of the multiple indicators. Indexes are
often measured at the interval or ratio level.
Researchers sometimes combine thee features of scales and indexes in a single measure. This is
common when a researcher has a several indicators that are scales (i.e. that measure intensity or
direction). The researcher then adds these indicators together to yield a single score, thereby creating an
index.
Types of Scales
A scale refers to any series of items that are arranged progressively according to value or magnitude,
into which an item can be placed according to its quantification. In other words, a scale is a continuous
spectrum or series of categories.
It is traditional to classify scales of measurement on the basis of the mathematical comparisons that are
allowable with these scales. Four types of scales are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
Nominal Scale
A nominal scale is the one in which the numbers or letters assigned to objects serve as labels for
identification or classification. This measurement scale is the simplest type. With nominal data, we are
collecting information on a variable that naturally or by design can be grouped into two or more
categories that are mutually exclusive, and collectively exhaustive.
Nominal scales are the least powerful of the four scales. They suggest no order or distance relationship
and have no arithmetic origin. Nevertheless, if no other scale can be used, one can almost always one
set of properties into a set of equivalent classes.
Ordinal Scale
Ordinal scales include the characteristics of the nominal scale plus an indicator of order. If a is greater
than b and b is greater than c, then a is greater than c. The use of ordinal scale implies a statement of
“greater than” or “less than” without stating how much greater or less. Other descriptors can be:
“superior to,” “happier than,” “poorer than,” or “above.”
Interval Scale
Interval scales have the power of nominal and ordinal scales plus one additional strength: they
incorporate the concept of equality of interval (the distance between 1 and 2 equals the distance between
2 and 3). For example, the elapsed time between 3 and 6 A. M. equals the time between 4 and 7 A. M.
One cannot say, however, 6 A.M. is twice as late as 3 A.M. because “zero time” is an arbitrary origin.
In the consumer price index, if the base year is 1983, the price level during 1983 will be set arbitrarily as
100. Although this is an equal interval measurement scale, the zero point is arbitrary.
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Ratio Scale
Ratio scales incorporate all thee powers of the previous scales plus the provision for absolute zero or
origin. Ratio data represent the actual amounts of variable. Measures of physical dimensions such as
weight, height, distance, and area are the examples. The absolute zero represents a point on the scale
where there is an absence of the given attribute. If we hear that a person has zero amount of money, we
understand the zero value of the amount.
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Lesson 18
CRITERIA FOR GOOD MEASUREMENT
Now that we have seen how to operationally define variables, it is important to make sure that the
instrument that we develop to measure a particular concept is indeed accurately measuring the variable,
and in fact, we are actually measuring the concept that we set out to measure. This ensures that in
operationally defining perceptual and attitudinal variables, we have not overlooked some important
dimensions and elements or included some irrelevant ones. The scales developed could often be
imperfect and errors are prone to occur in the measurement of attitudinal variables. The use of better
instruments will ensure more accuracy in results, which in turn, will enhance the scientific quality of the
research. Hence, in some way, we need to assess the “goodness” of the measure developed.
What should be the characteristics of a good measurement? An intuitive answer to this question is that
the tool should be an accurate indicator of what we are interested in measuring. In addition, it should be
easy and efficient to use. There are three major criteria for evaluating a measurement tool: validity,
reliability, and sensitivity.
Validity
Validity is the ability of an instrument (for example measuring an attitude) to measure what it is
supposed to measure. That is, when we ask a set of questions (i.e. develop a measuring instrument) with
the hope that we are tapping the concept, how can we be reasonably certain that we are indeed
measuring the concept we set out to do and not something else? There is no quick answer.
Researchers have attempted to assess validity in different ways, including asking questions such as “Is
there consensus among my colleagues that my attitude scale measures what it is supposed to measure?”
and “Does my measure correlate with others’ measures of the ‘same’ concept?” and “Does the behavior
expected from my measure predict the actual observed behavior?” Researchers expect the answers to
provide some evidence of a measure’s validity.
What is relevant depends on the nature of the research problem and the researcher’s judgment. One way
to approach this question is to organize the answer according to measure-relevant types of validity. One
widely accepted classification consists of three major types of validity: (1) content validity, (2) criterionrelated validity, and (3) construct validity.
(1) Content Validity
The content validity of a measuring instrument (the composite of measurement scales) is the extent to
which it provides adequate coverage of the investigative questions guiding the study. If the instrument
contains a representative sample of the universe of subject matter of interest, then the content validity is
good. To evaluate the content validity of an instrument, one must first agree on what dimensions and
elements constitute adequate coverage. To put it differently, content validity is a function of how well
the dimensions and elements of a concept have been delineated. Look at the concept of feminism which
implies a person’s commitment to a set of beliefs creating full equality between men and women in
areas of the arts, intellectual pursuits, family, work, politics, and authority relations. Does this definition
provide adequate coverage of the different dimensions of the concept? Then we have the following two
questions to measure feminism:
1. Should men and women get equal pay for equal work?
2. Should men and women share household tasks?
These two questions do not provide coverage to all the dimensions delineated earlier. It definitely falls
short of adequate content validity for measuring feminism.
A panel of persons to judge how well the instrument meets the standard can attest to the content validity
of the instrument. A panel independently assesses the test items for a performance test. It judges each
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item to be essential, useful but not essential, or not necessary in assessing performance of a relevant
behavior.
Face validity is considered as a basic and very minimum index of content validity. Face validity
indicates that the items that are intended to measure a concept, do on the face of it look like they
measure the concept. For example a few people would accept a measure of college student math ability
using a question that asked students: 2 + 2 = ? This is not a valid measure of college-level math ability
on the face of it. Nevertheless, it is a subjective agreement among professionals that a scale logically
appears to reflect accurately what it is supposed to measure. When it appears evident to experts that the
measure provides adequate coverage of the concept, a measure has face validity.
(2) Criterion-Related Validity
Criterion validity uses some standard or criterion to indicate a construct accurately. The validity of an
indicator is verified by comparing it with another measure of the same construct in which research has
confidence. There are two subtypes of this kind of validity.
Concurrent validity: To have concurrent validity, an indicator must be associated with a preexisting
indicator that is judged to be valid. For example we create a new test to measure intelligence. For it to
be concurrently valid, it should be highly associated with existing IQ tests (assuming the same definition
of intelligence is used). It means that most people who score high on the old measure should also score
high on the new one, and vice versa. The two measures may not be perfectly associated, but if they
measure the same or a similar construct, it is logical for them to yield similar results.
Predictive validity:
Criterion validity whereby an indicator predicts future events that are logically related to a construct is
called a predictive validity. It cannot be used for all measures. The measure and the action predicted
must be distinct from but indicate the same construct. Predictive measurement validity should not be
confused with prediction in hypothesis testing, where one variable predicts a different variable in future.
Look at the scholastic assessment tests being given to candidates seeking admission in different
subjects. These are supposed to measure the scholastic aptitude of the candidates – the ability to
perform in institution as well as in the subject. If this test has high predictive validity, then candidates
who get high test score will subsequently do well in their subjects. If students with high scores perform
the same as students with average or low score, then the test has low predictive validity.
(3) Construct Validity
Construct validity is for measures with multiple indicators. It addresses the question: If the measure is
valid, do the various indicators operate in consistent manner? It requires a definition with clearly
specified conceptual boundaries. In order to evaluate construct validity, we consider both theory and
the measuring instrument being used. This is assessed through convergent validity and discriminant
validity.
Convergent Validity: This kind of validity applies when multiple indicators converge or are associated
with one another. Convergent validity means that multiple measures of the same construct hang
together or operate in similar ways. For example, we construct “education” by asking people how much
education they have completed, looking at their institutional records, and asking people to complete a
test of school level knowledge. If the measures do not converge (i.e. people who claim to have college
degree but have no record of attending college, or those with college degree perform no better than high
school dropouts on the test), then our test has weak convergent validity and we should not combine all
three indicators into one measure.
Discriminant Validity: Also called divergent validity, discriminant validity is the opposite of
convergent validity. It means that the indicators of one construct hang together or converge, but also
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diverge or are negatively associated with opposing constructs. It says that if two constructs A and B are
very different, then measures of A and B should not be associated. For example, we have 10 items that
measure political conservatism. People answer all 10 in similar ways. But we have also put 5 questions
in the same questionnaire that measure political liberalism. Our measure of conservatism has
discriminant validity if the 10 conservatism items hang together and are negatively associated with 5
liberalism ones.
Reliability
The reliability of a measure indicates the extent to which it is without bias (error free) and hence ensures
consistent measurement across time and across the various items in the instrument. In other words, the
reliability of a measure is an indication of the stability and consistency with which the instrument
measures the concept and helps to assess the ‘goodness” of measure.
Stability of Measures
The ability of the measure to remain the same over time – despite uncontrollable testing conditions or
the state of the respondents themselves – is indicative of its stability and low vulnerability to changes in
the situation. This attests to its “goodness” because the concept is stably measured, no matter when it is
done. Two tests of stability are test-retest reliability and parallel-form reliability.
(1) Test-retest Reliability: Test-retest method of determining reliability involves administering the
same scale to the same respondents at two separate times to test for stability. If the measure is stable
over time, the test, administered under the same conditions each time, should obtain similar results. For
example, suppose a researcher measures job satisfaction and finds that 64 percent of the population is
satisfied with their jobs. If the study is repeated a few weeks later under similar conditions, and the
researcher again finds that 64 percent of the population is satisfied with their jobs, it appears that the
measure has repeatability. The high stability correlation or consistency between the two measures at
time 1 and at time 2 indicates high degree of reliability. This was at the aggregate level; the same
exercise can be applied at the individual level. When the measuring instrument produces unpredictable
results from one testing to the next, the results are said to be unreliable because of error in measurement.
There are two problems with measures of test-retest reliability that are common to all longitudinal
studies. Firstly, the first measure may sensitize the respondents to their participation in a research
project and subsequently influence the results of the second measure. Further if the time between the
measures is long, there may be attitude change or other maturation of the subjects. Thus it is possible
for a reliable measure to indicate low or moderate correlation between the first and the second
administration, but this low correlation may be due an attitude change over time rather than to lack of
reliability.
(2) Parallel-Form Reliability: When responses on two comparable sets of measures tapping the same
construct are highly correlated, we have parallel-form reliability. It is also called equivalent-form
reliability. Both forms have similar items and same response format, the only changes being the
wording and the order or sequence of the questions. What we try to establish here is the error variability
resulting from wording and ordering of the questions. If two such comparable forms are highly
correlated, we may be fairly certain that the measures are reasonably reliable, with minimal error
variance caused by wording, ordering, or other factors.
Internal Consistency of Measures
Internal consistency of measures is indicative of the homogeneity of the items in the measure that tap
the construct. In other words, the items should ‘hang together as a set,’ and be capable of independently
measuring the same concept so that the respondents attach the same overall meaning to each of the
items. This can be seen by examining if the items and the subsets of items in the measuring instrument
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are highly correlated. Consistency can be examined through the inter-item consistency reliability
and split-half reliability.
(1) Inter-item Consistency reliability: This is a test of consistency of respondents’ answers to
all the items in a measure. To the degree that items are independent measures of the same
concept, they will be correlated with one another.
(2) Split-Half reliability: Split half reliability reflects the correlations between two halves of an
instrument. The estimates could vary depending on how the items in the measure are split into
two halves. The technique of splitting halves is the most basic method for checking internal
consistency when measures contain a large number of items. In the split-half method the
researcher may take the results obtained from one half of the scale items (e.g. odd-numbered
items) and check them against the results from the other half of the items (e.g. even numbered
items). The high correlation tells us there is similarity (or homogeneity) among its items.
It is important to note that reliability is a necessary but not sufficient condition of the test of
goodness of a measure. For example, one could reliably measure a concept establishing high
stability and consistency, but it may not be the concept that one had set out to measure. Validity
ensures the ability of a scale to measure the intended concept.
Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a scale is an important measurement concept, particularly when changes in
attitudes or other hypothetical constructs are under investigation. Sensitivity refers to an
instrument’s ability to accurately measure variability in stimuli or responses. A dichotomous
response category, such as “agree or disagree,” does not allow the recording of subtle attitude
changes. A more sensitive measure, with numerous items on the scale, may be needed. For
example adding “strongly agree,” “mildly agree,” “neither agree nor disagree,” “mildly
disagree,” and “strongly disagree” as categories increases a scale’s sensitivity.
The sensitivity of a scale based on a single question or single item can also be increased by
adding additional questions or items. In other words, because index measures allow for greater
range of possible scores, they are more sensitive than single item.
Practicality: The scientific requirements of a project call for the measurement process to be
reliable and valid, while the operational requirements call for it to be practical. Practicality has
been defined as economy, convenience, and interpretability.
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